Democratization in Indonesia and the Growth of Post-Islamism
Through Popular Culture Media
Muh. Bahruddin
1
a
Karman
2
b
and Bambang Mudjiyanto
3
c
2
3
Keywords: Democratization, Post-Islamism, Popular Culture, and Indonesian Cinema
Abstract: This paper examines post-Islamism in post-reform Indonesian cinema (1998). We focus on Muslim-figure
representation in films as a medium of popular culture through which they represent themselves as friendly,
tolerant, modern, and pious Muslims. We argue this phenomenon as the form of post-Islamism. Post-Islamists
are different from Islamists. Muslim figures with post-Islamism do not express radicalism/conservatism and
reject the system and values of democracy because of western culture. We argue that filmmakers want to
show that the post-Islamism movement in Indonesian cinema is the way to represent the compatibility of
Islam with modernity, tolerance to capitalistic/western values, and non-violent. Filmmakers present post-
Islamism as part of democracy in the Indonesian political system. By adopting the post-Islamism concept by
Asef Bayat, Iranian social theorist, we explain the growth of Islamic-genre films in the post-reform and argue
that this phenomenon is a form of post-Islamism. We collected data through in-depth interviews with
filmmakers of Islamic-genre cinema. We conclude: democratization in Indonesia provides an opportunity to
externalize post-Islamism through popular culture. Post-Islamists use democracy to express their identity and
religiosity as Muslims
1 INTRODUCTION
After the 1998 reform event in Indonesia, the growth
of Islamic groups marked the freedom to express
ideas, opinions, and organize as the essence of
democracy that was previously shackled for
approximately 32 years during the New Order era.
However, radical Islamic groups also take advantage
of this freedom and use other forms of violence in
society. The massive movement of these Islamic
groups has links to violent practices, such as the Bali
bombings in 2002 and 2005, the bomb explosion at
the Marriot Hotel in 2003, and the Australian
Embassy in 2004 (Hilmy, 2007). As the country with
the largest Muslim population in the world and the
third-largest democracy after the United States and
India, Indonesia strives to uphold democratic values.
The post-Islamism movement wants to remove the
negative stigma against Islam which was previously
considered part of a radical group. The post-Islamism
a
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1563-5063
b
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2630-2424
c
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6416-5750
movement wants to show Islam as a religion of peace,
not a religion that teaches terrorism as is often
addressed to Islamic groups, especially the Islamism
movement.
Through Indonesian cinema, the post-Islamism
movement presents a peaceful Islam. They put
forward democratic values. On the other hand, they
remain in the faith by prioritizing Islamic Sharia
(law). Despite placing Islam as a social order, this
group accommodates democracy due to living in
Indonesia. They do not impose Islam as the state's
political ideology as conservative Islamic groups do.
For Bayat (Bayat, 2011) , Islamism defines Islam as
responding to political, economic, and cultural
deficits. It imagines Islam as a perfect divine system,
not just a means of worship but a political model,
cultural code, law, and economic order. Islam is a
system that responds to all problems in all human
life. However, Bayat said that this interpretation
tends to marginalize and oppress others who have
Bahruddin, M., Karman, . and Mudjiyanto, B.
Democratization in Indonesia and the Growth of Post-Islamism Through Popular Culture Media.
DOI: 10.5220/0011509400003460
In Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Social and Political Development (ICOSOP 2022) - Human Security and Agile Government, pages 29-34
ISBN: 978-989-758-618-7; ISSN: 2975-8300
Copyright
c
 2023 by SCITEPRESS – Science and Technology Publications, Lda. Under CC license (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0)
29

different understandings in many ways. In practice,
the Islamism movement is also against local
tradition, secularism, non-Islamism, religious
minorities, women, etc. Islamism or post-Islamism is
an idea that understands Islam in its socio-political
context. Islam is an ideology and a tool of power, and
a tool for social domination. The difference between
Islamism and post-Islamism lies in the realm of the
practice of Islamic doctrine itself. Islamism works on
the state system while post-Islamism works on socio-
cultural life (Bayat, 2007). Making Islam
Democratic: Social movements and the post-Islamist
turn. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.).
Islamism has a relationship with the interests of the
transnational movement. Meanwhile, post-Islamism
uses arguments with local repertoires (repertoires of
reasoning) such as local history, customs, rituals, and
local memory, rather than scripturalist theological
views (Alimi, 2014). 'Local repertoires of reasoning
and the Islamist movement in post-authoritarian
Indonesia,' Indonesia and the Malay World 42–122:
24–42). Post-Islamists do not take a position against
secularism but instead apply Islam despite the
secular social environment (Sakai & Fauzia, 2014).
In the post-reform era in Indonesia, these
ultra-conservative Islamic groups were considered
agents of the 'Arabization' of Indonesian Islam after
experiencing a period of marginalization in the 1980-
1990s. This group received assistance from Saudi
Arabia (such as funds), although not all groups
promoted radical Islamic ideas (Bubalo and Fealy,
2005; Izharuddin, 2015). The use of the veil (for
Muslimah) and pornography provisions law is also
related to the mission of 'Arabization' and the spread
of Islamism in Indonesia (Wieringa, 2009;
Izharuddin, 2015). In the context of Indonesia, which
adheres to the Pancasila ideology, which is secular, it
prioritizes harmonious relations (and equal rights)
with non-Muslim minorities so that the idea of
becoming an Islamic state is not appropriate (Van
Bruinessen, 2013).
The ideas of Islamism became a topic of
discussion among the nation's founders at the
beginning of Indonesia's independence. They
discussed the relationship between Islam and the state
at The Investigating Committee for Preparatory Work
for Independence and The Constitutional Assembly
sessions. The agreement among them is Pancasila
which they believe can accommodate plurality.
Pancasila means The Five Principles. They include
Belief in the one and only God, Just and civilized
humanity, the Unity of Indonesia, Democracy guided
by the inner wisdom in the unanimity arising of
deliberations among representatives, and social
justice for the whole of the people of Indonesia. It
shows that Indonesia has ideas about Islamic identity
and ideology that have various interpretations.
Indonesia also enjoys popular culture with the global
community, especially among the youth. It then
mediates the growth of post-Islamism. The presence
of new (media based on internet technology)
accelerates the dissemination of messages contained
in popular culture (Rosa, 2019).
Ariel Heryanto (Heryanto, 2015) sees the
process of this generation of Muslims as connoisseurs
of cultural taste and independence. However, they
also do not want to sacrifice their faith. Ariel argues
that the emergence of post-Islamism is part of the
New Order's history which is not friendly with
Muslim communities, both moderate Muslims and
conservative Muslims. With the New Order's
treatment, which always cornered Islam and used it as
a political vehicle at the end of Suharto's tenure,
Islamic groups reformulated Islam after the collapse
of the New Order regime. One of them is post-
Islamism, born in the economically middle class, in
urban areas. They reproduce their identity as
followers of Islam by considering the values of
globalization, modernity, democracy, and freedom.
In the past, these values were enjoyed in camouflage.
The post-Islamists took advantage of the
collapse of the New Order regime through Indonesian
cinema. This reality is in the film adaptation entitled
Ayat-Ayat Cinta (2008) by Hanung Bramantyo. The
film, adapted from a novel by Habiburrahman El
Shirazi, marked the rise of Indonesian cinema and the
first time the birth of a post-reform Islamic-themed
film. This film has the support of 3.7 million viewers
in Indonesia. The emergence of post-Islamism erased
the face of Islam, which was considered radical in the
film Ayat-Ayat Cinta. This film depicts handsome,
friendly, educated, successful, and modern Muslims.
The film Ayat-Ayat Cinta also puts women equal to
men in career and education. This impression is far
from the shadow of the violence and radicalism
inherent in conservative Islamic groups such as
Islamists. The success of post-Islamism identity
politics through the big screen was followed by other
films such as Ketika Cinta Bertasbih (2009), Dalam
Mihrab Cinta (2010), and Cinta Suci Zahrana (2012)
and Ayat-Ayat Cinta 2 (2017). All three are
adaptations of the novel by Habiburahman El-Shirazi.
Meanwhile, other films that grew up with post-
Islamism packaging were adaptations of novels by
Asma Nadia, such as the film Assalamualaikum
Beijing (2013), Surga Yang Tak Dirindukan (2015),
Jilbab Traveler: Love Spark in Korea (2016), Cinta
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Laki-Laki Biasa (2016) and Bunda: Kisah Cinta 2
Kodi (2018).
The emergence of the post-Islamism
movement in Indonesia is related to the consolidation
of democracy which facilitated the opening of
political opportunities after the fall of Suharto and the
development of modern idioms from the moderate
Muslim campaign against Islamic radicalism (Hasan,
2013). In popular culture, the manifestation of Islam
in films has been a long time in Indonesia. Islam and
pop culture get combined in various forms and
purposes (Barker, 2011). As a mass media, films
convey the ideology of filmmakers such as directors,
writers, or producers. These three elements have an
essential role in constructing messages through
stories, scenes, plots, settings, wardrobes, and other
elements (Bahruddin et al., 2021).
2 METHOD
This study uses in-depth interviews with informants
involved in Islamic-themed films, especially in the
post-Islamism movement. Habiburrahman El Shirazi
and Asma Nadia are novel writers whose works have
been adapted into films. Another informant was
Guntur Soehardjanto who directed Ayat-Ayat Cinta 2,
Assalamualaikum Beijing, and Jilbab Traveler: Love
Sparks in Korea. The issue of democratic values in
this paper is limited to issues of tolerance and
women's freedom packaged in the post-Islamism
movement. The author explores information from
filmmakers to find out what kind of interpretation of
Islam they want to offer to the public in Indonesian
cinema. The filmmakers will confirm the film's
reading of issues about democratic values to find out
more about the post-Islamism movement, especially
in Indonesian cinema.
3 RESULTS
Western mass media view Islam as the root of
authoritarian rule for the Muslim community in the
Middle East. Islam is a patriarchal religion, bad at
regulating citizenship, and minus in freedom (Bayat,
2007). To remove this stigma, the post-Islamism
movement uses issues of democracy to emphasize
that Islam is a religion that is far from violence and
radicalism and is in line with democracy. The issues
of democracy focusing on Indonesian cinema are
inter-religious tolerance and women's freedom.
However, the post-Islamism movement still upholds
the principles of Islam as an unnegotiable legal
system. Post-Islamists view Islam as a religion that
regulates all aspects of people's lives. However, they
view Islam can’t be forced into state law as the
Islamism movement views.
3.1 Tolerance Issue
The issue of tolerance in the film Ayat-Ayat Cinta
(2008) is about the association of a Muslim with a
Coptic Christian. Several scenes show the harmony
of Islam with other religions. For example, the scene
where Fahri (Fedi Nuril) helps Americans when they
are accused of being a terrorist by native Egyptians
while on the Metro. In this film, Fahri is also willing
to marry a Coptic Christian girl named Maria Girgis
(played by Carissa Putri). Even though at first, Aisha
(played by Rianti Cartwright) was not willing to be
married but saw Maria was seriously ill due to
thinking about Fahri as well as being the key witness
to Fahri's accusation of committing adultery against
Noura (Zaskia Adya Mecca), Aisha finally asked
Fahri to marry her. A few days after marriage, Maria
died after converting to Islam.
Meanwhile, in the film Ayat-Ayat Cinta 2,
tolerance issues get raised by Fahri'story, who has
become a lecturer at the University of Edinburgh,
Scotland, and a retail entrepreneur there. In this
country, Fahri neighbors Jewish and Christian
families. They described Fahri as a 'perfect' Muslim
figure, and he is handsome, friendly, successful,
intelligent, and generous. It makes their Jewish
neighbors, Mrs. Caterina (played by Dewi Irawan)
and Keira (played by Chelsea Islan), who are
Christians, admire Fahri's figure as a good Muslim.
Even Keira, who initially hated Fahri because his
father was a victim of terrorism, finally realized that
Fahri was a kind-hearted Muslim, far from the
negative stigma that he had always believed in.
The issue of tolerance is also in the film
Assalamualaikum Beijing which features a Muslim
female character named Asma (played by Revalina S.
Temat). He befriends an agnostic character (no
religion but believes in God), Zhong Wen (played by
Morgan Oey). Narratively, the film Assalamualaikum
Beijing also explores Islamic buildings as a cultural
heritage in China. Even though Islam is a minority
religion in China, it can coexist with non-Muslim
communities. Even Zhong Wen, who works as a tour
guide, swiftly took Asma on Islamic religious tours,
and told the early history of Islam in China.
Democratization in Indonesia and the Growth of Post-Islamism Through Popular Culture Media
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3.2 Women's Freedom Issue
The issue of women's freedom in the Islamic legal
system, mainly widely applied in the Middle East, is
often in the world's spotlight. Post-Islamism groups
want to remove this stigma through the films they
produce. Aisyah's character in the film Ayat-Ayat
Cinta is a free woman who can make her life choices.
Besides being successful in higher education, Aisyah
and her best friend decided to become humanitarian
volunteers in Palestine, even though she already has
a husband (Fahri). Likewise, Hulya (played by
Tatjana Saphira) has the freedom to pursue a master's
degree in Edinburgh. This film also shows the
character of Aisyah, who refuses to be married when
Fahri wants to marry Maria. However, Aisyah
accepted Maria for humanitarian reasons.
The same thing is in the film Surga Yang Tak
Dirindukan. This film depicts a wife named Arini
(played by Laudya Cinthia Bella) who is not willing
to be polygamous with her husband, Pras (played by
Fedi Nuril), who wants to marry Meirose (played by
Raline Shah). Even though, in the end, Arini accepted
for humanitarian reasons that Meirose's mental health
would get worse due to her husband leaving her at the
wedding reception.
The film Jilbab Traveler: Love Sparks in
Korea provides an overview of the freedom of
Muslim women to explore the world without being
accompanied by their mahram or family. This film
also illustrates that women have the freedom to
choose their life partners. This freedom to explore the
world is in the film Assalamualaikum Beijing. Asma
(played by Revalina S. Temat) is a character who can
travel to China for her dreams and career. The story
of this film seems to emphasize that Islam does not
limit women who have been considered only behind
the success of men. He can travel wherever he likes
to achieve his dreams.
Meanwhile, the film Cinta Laki-Laki Biasa
depicts an independent woman in the character of
Nania (played by Velove Vexia). He was successful
in his education and career as an architect, and Nania
also has the freedom to choose the life partner she
loves. He refused the arranged marriage by his
parents.
Freedom in pursuing higher education is also
seen in the film Ketika Cinta Bertasbih. The character
Ana (played by Oki Setiana Dewi) is a woman who
has completed education at Al Azhar, Cairo, Egypt.
This film also depicts the figure of women's freedom
in making their life choices. Ana filed for divorce
after finding out that her husband was HIV.
Meanwhile, freedom in the film Bunda: Cinta 2 Kodi
is about women's freedom to improve careers. Kartika
(played by Acha Septriasa) is a thriving Muslim
woman who becomes an entrepreneur. Even in her
household journey, Kartika often fights with her
husband because it is difficult to divide time between
business and household. Likewise, the film Cinta Suci
Zahrana depicts a successful woman in her education
and career. The character Zahrana (played by Meyda
Sefira) also has a choice in determining her soul mate,
who, in the end, marries the student she loves.
The film Dalam Mihrab Cinta also describes
the freedom in choosing a mate. Zizi character
(played by Meyda Sefira), the daughter of a Kiai
(Muslim cleric) from a boarding school, has the
freedom to express her opinion and determine her life
partner. He rejected the application of one of the
students, whom he considered a bad character.
4 DISCUSSIONS
The issues of tolerance and women's freedom in a
democratic system depicted in the film's adaptation of
the novels by Habiburrahman El Shirazi, and Asma
Nadia show that Islam is quite flexible and can adapt
to the modern world – adhering to the Western system
– while still upholding Islamic principles. For
example, consuming halal food and beverages, not
touching people who are not mahram, and praying
even abroad. For sharia, it must be firm (Asma Nadia,
Personal Communication, August 27, 2017). The
images of films adapted by Habiburrahman El Shirazi
and Asma Nadia always represent friendly Islam,
wherever a Muslim lives. Islam can coexist with
adherents of other religions, both neighbors and
friends, including through marriage. Others should
feel the goodness of Islam. A Muslim must be an
ambassador for Islam everywhere (Asma Nadia,
Personal Communication, August 27, 2017). Islam
must be good religion for everyone (Habiburrahman
El Shirazi, Personal Communication, July 8, 2017).
However, this contradicts the Islamic-themed films
by director Nurman Hakim (Nurman Hakim, Personal
Communication, December 13, 2017). In his films,
Islam appears in conditions that are not always good.
He describes the life of a boarding school which is not
always good. For example, there was an ustadz
sexually harassing a student, as depicted in the film 3
Doa 3 Cinta.
On the other hand, the tolerance issue
packaged in the film Ayat-Ayat Cinta is considered by
non-Muslims as justification that Islam is the most
authentic religion. For example, the film Ayat-Ayat
Cinta is considered part of the hegemony of the
ICOSOP 2022 - International Conference on Social and Political Development 4
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Islamic group as the true religion, and they protest
discrimination and religious tolerance in this film
(Detik.com, 2008). Meanwhile, the scene of Fahri's
defense of foreign tourists on the metro because
Egyptians accused them of being part of the
American people (a country that has massacred
Muslims in Afghanistan, Iraq, and Palestine) was
considered by the editors of Mujahidin magazine as a
campaign mission for Islamic pluralism(Arrahmah,
2008). To avoid Muslims and other religions being
offended by the films written, Asma Nadia (Asma
Nadia, Personal Communication, August 27, 2017)
continuously monitors the storyline during film
production. The films adapted from the novels must
not conflict with Islam and not offend ethnicity,
religion, race, and groups. Islam must be presented as
a religion of rahmatan lil alamin (Islam is a religion
that gives love to the entire universe). Meanwhile,
director Guntur Soeharjanto (Guntur Soeharjanto,
Personal Communication, August 22, 2017) admits
that he only makes films that have good values and
are not controversial.
Asma Nadia's commitment is also seen in
films that raise the issue of women's freedom. Asma
Nadia (Personal Communication, August 27, 2017)
emphasizes that women must be logical and must be
able to solve problems. A woman must be
economically empowered. They must have strong
support for their children so that when their husband
dies or is polygamous but irresponsible, their children
do not become victims of adults' decisions. The
children can continue their dreams and aspirations
because their mothers are economically empowered.
This women's empowerment seems to refute
the view that Islam positions women as subordinates,
namely only being part of men, as described in
Islamism. In countries that use the Islamic system, the
position of women is a part of men. They do not have
the right to choose a partner, cannot be highly
educated, and cannot have a career like men. The
film's adaptation of Habiburrahman El Shirazi and
especially Asma Nadia seem to want to emphasize
that women have their abilities so that equality with
men will come naturally. This thinking aligns with
post-feminism, which is fed up with feminist
thinking, which holds that women need to be
empowered to be equal to men. This kind of thinking
ignites the view of women's own inability to build
themselves (Rosa, 2019). The films of
Habiburrahman El-Shirazi and Asma Nadia depict
women's freedom in careers, education, and freedom
in determining their life partner. However, these films
want to emphasize the necessity of obeying Islamic
law. For example, a wife (woman) must obey her
husband. Men still have power over women,
especially in the household, as in the film Cinta Laki-
Laki Biasa. When Rafli (Deva Mahendra) does not
have the cost of giving birth to his wife, Nania, he has
to say that he will replace all Nania's deliveries if he
has enough money. The concept of the husband as the
leader of the household is considered an act following
Islamic principles. These films argue that not all
wives can be treated according to their husbands' will
regarding polygamy. There are many things that a
husband must prepare if he wants to be polygamous,
both materially and psychologically, for his wife.
Nevertheless, these two films still want to emphasize
that polygamy is legal and is part of Islamic law.
Hence, both films end with polygamous scenes based
on the wife's request for humanitarian reasons.
Women are free to make their life choices, but they
must also know that there are limits to Islamic law
that they must obey.
5 CONCLUSIONS
The synthesis of democratization and Islam in the
post-Islamism movement was mainly carried out
through popular culture media such as films,
especially during the reformation period. Through
Indonesian cinema, post-Islamism brings issues of
democracy such as tolerance and women's freedom to
emphasize that Islam is not a radical religion and
imposes an Islamic legal system (sharia) as the
ideology of the Indonesian state. The negative stigma
against Islamism as political Islam is trying to be
removed through Islamic-themed films that promote
democratic values while still upholding Islamic
principles. In popular culture media, post-Islamism
tries to juxtapose democracy and Islam friendly, far
from violence and violent radicalism.
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