Phonetic and Grammatical Parallels in Modern German and Chechen

Petimat Khalidovna Almurzaeva

, Brilliant Magomedovna Abubakarova

and Timerlan Ibrahimovich Usmanov

Kadyrov Chechen State University, Grozny, Russian Federation

Saint-Petersburg State University of Economics, Saint-Petersburg, Russian Federation

Keywords: Phoneme, Phonetic Parallels, Juxtaposition, Aspiration, Glottal Stop (Plosive), Umlaut.

Abstract: In the era of globalization, special attention is being paid to rethinking the interaction of countries at different

levels of development. Modern institutions are working to create a unified environment for the understanding

of different languages and cultures. In today's world there are integrative processes of interaction between

different peoples, which unintentionally affect intercultural and crosslingual issues. Revealing the laws of

words formation and construction of phrases in particular languages, finding out what is common in these

languages and those laws which are more peculiar to one language in comparison with the laws of another

language, understanding their origin – all this large and important work will provide a serious base for

studying any language. The Caucasian languages were of great interest to foreign linguists, such as A.

Sommerfelt, A. Dirr, D. Braun, J. Hippert, and W. Schulze. Many works have been written about the

Caucasian languages in English, German and French. In this article, we will examine phonetic parallels in the

German and Chechen languages.

1 INTRODUCTION

Since ancient times Caucasian languages attracted the

attention of many scholars. G. A. Klimov writes:

"Even in 1862 the greatest Russian, Caucasian

linguist of the last century Pyotr Uslar noted that

comparative linguistics is waiting for contributions

from Caucasus. At the same time, the Caucasian

linguistic material is of great interest from the point

of view of general linguistics theory" (

Some Phonetic

and Grammatical Parallels and Contrasts in Literary

German, 1970)

The Caucasian languages were of great interest to

foreign linguists as well. Many works have been

written about the Caucasian languages in English,

German and French.

However, not all the peoples of the Caucasus had

the opportunity to study their native language under

the tsarist regime.

Only after the Great October Socialist Revolution

did the peoples of the entire Soviet Union get the

opportunity to study their native and Russian

languages. Much attention in the early years of Soviet

power was paid to the study of foreign languages.

Scientists worried about the question of how best to

present a foreign language to the students.

The purpose of this article is to review the

scholarly and methodological literature on phonetic

parallels and contrasts in German and Chechen:

Comparative study is an extremely important

approach. Revealing the laws of words formation and

construction of phrases in particular languages,

finding out what is common in these languages and

those laws which are more peculiar to one language

in comparison with the laws of another language,

understanding their origin – all this large and

important work will provide a serious base for

studying any language.

Research methods: At the present stage of the

development of modern linguistics, current research

methods and experience enable us to study

genetically unrelated and typologically dissimilar

linguistic systems of Chechen and German languages.

The languages of the peoples of the world make a

unique system that reflects the self-awareness of

ethnic groups as their speakers. When we study them

comparatively, we can see both similarities and

differences that are typical of the structure of a

particular language.

Almurzaeva, P., Abubakarova, B. and Usmanov, T.

Phonetic and Grammatical Parallels in Modern German and Chechen.

DOI: 10.5220/0011608800003577

In Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on Actual Issues of Linguistics, Linguodidactics and Intercultural Communication (TLLIC 2022), pages 153-159

ISBN: 978-989-758-655-2

 2023 by SCITEPRESS – Science and Technology Publications, Lda. Under CC license (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0)

153

2 LITERATURE REVIEW

In recent years special attention has been paid to

comparative linguistics. A lot of works has been

published comparing the grammatical structure of the

Russian language with the grammatical structure of

the languages of the peoples of our country.

Especially noteworthy are the works devoted to

teaching foreign languages in national schools, which

prove the importance of comparing them with the

native language (Almurzaeva, 2012).

Noting the importance of the native language in

learning a foreign language, Academician L.V.

Shcherba wrote: "All the efforts of the

straightforward methodology... All the efforts of

Direct Methods were aimed at creating in students a

pure bilingualism by totally banishing the native

language from the whole process of learning.

However, the experience has shown that it is possible

to banish the native language from the learning

process (and thereby impoverish this process by not

giving the foreign language any weapon to defend

itself against the influence of the native one), but that

it is impossible to banish the native language from the

heads of students in school conditions..." ( Vagapov,

2011).

In the work "Comparative characteristics of

complex attributive word combinations in German

and Kazakh," E. N. Nurmaganbetov notes: "The

study of foreign languages in our country is not

opposed to the knowledge and study of our native

language. On the contrary, the knowledge of a foreign

language and its laws helps one to better master one's

native language. But the study of foreign languages

has its own characteristics, in particular for those

whose native language differs in its grammatical

structure. The comparison of languages, which are

unequal in structure, should establish the

commonalities and differences, to identify the

specific features of these languages, which is

necessary for their conscious learning" (Almurzaeva,

2018)

But the comparison of a native and a foreign

language should be carried out both theoretically and

practically. Only this solution can contribute to a

better learning of a foreign language. To implement

practically a better foreign language learning is

possible if students are given more exercises, which

would include a grammatical parallel to the native

language, as well as examples of differences and

similarities of phonetic and grammatical phenomena

of native and foreign languages. Setting such a

question in the teaching process will facilitate the

conscious learning of the foreign language.

Comparative analysis of the phonetics in the

Chechen and German languages had not been

extensively studied upto 1993. That year, there was

defended the doctoral dissertation of Umadkeryeva

Y.D. at St Petersburg State University «The

phonological system of literary Chechen vowels in

comparison with German», which compares Chechen

and German with a special emphasis on diphthongs

because the monophthong systems of the two

languages are marked by greater affinity

(Akhmanova, 2013).

It would be very interesting to look for parallels

or contrasts in Chechen and German, which should be

of great help in teaching foreign languages at school

and university. Such research will have not only

practical but also theoretical significance. The

question of the proper organization of foreign

language teaching in national schools is important,

because the students there study their native

language, Russian and one of the foreign languages.

Therefore, the solution to the problem of comparing

the Chechen and German languages is an urgent task.

3 RESEARCH RESULTS

This article will address, to the possible extent, some

issues in the comparative study of the phonetics of the

German and Chechen languages.

First of all, it should be noted that the

pronunciation of p, t, k consonants in German and

Chechen is of great importance in the development of

correct pronunciation.

The voiceless r, t, k in Chechen dialects are

always aspirated: Пайда – выгода, польза. Пха –

жила. Тур – сабля.

The consonants p, t, k in German occur most

frequently before vowels, diphthongs, and sonants 1,

m, r, n.

German:

− (die)' Post '– почта, корреспонденция

− (die) Pause – пауза, перерыв

− (der) Pelz – мех, шуба

− (die) Tanne – пихта, ель

− (der) Täu – роса

− (die) Kanne – кувшин, кружка

− (der) Käufer – покупатель.

The phonemes p, t, k in the Vainakh languages

occur in any word position.

At the beginning of a word:

Chechen language

Russian language

− пхиъ [пхиъ] – пять

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− пен [пиен] – стена

− тахана [тахина] – сегодня

− тера [тиера] – похожий

− ког [куог] – нога

− керт [киерт] – забор

In the middle of a word:

− тайпа [тайпа] – род

− кепек [кепиек] – копейка

− датта [датта] – печь

− ата [ата] – дробить

− аьхке [аьхкие] – лето

− лехка [лиехка] – гнать

At the end of a word:

− айп [айп] – порок

− топ [туоп] – ружье

− барт [барт] – согласие

− абат [абат] – азбука, алфавит

− мохк [муохк] – страна

− дохк [дуохк] – туман

Chechens often aspirate Russian words with the

phonemes p, t, k under the influence of their native

language. Considering the presence of aspirated

consonant phonemes p, t, k in the Vainakh languages,

one must pay attention to the correct pronunciation of

words in the German language in the Chechen

schools (Almurzaeva, 2012).

A characteristic feature of the pronunciation of

German vowels in the initial position is the glottal

stop.

German language:

− ’atmen – дышать

− ’alle – все

− ’irren – ошибаться

− ’ordnen – приводить в порядок

The laryngeal stop that is called the glottal stop in

German, so characteristic of German vowel

phonemes, is also present in the Vainakh languages in

the same positions. According to V. D. Timayev, "the

ъ sound in Chechen occurs both at the beginning of a

word before vowels, as the glottal stop, and in the

middle of a word between two vowels, and at the end

of a word after a vowel. It also occurs in other

positions: after a vowel before a consonant (лиъна

«пожелал», хиъна «узнал»). P.K. Uslar considered

the sound ъ as a phoneme and called to mark it on the

letter". [5].

Chechen language

At the beginning of the word:

− ъан [‘ан] «прострел»

− ъун [‘ун] «доска»

In the middle of the word:

− хаъан [ха‘ан] «сесть»

− лаъан [ла‘ан] «хотеть»

− дайъан [дай‘ан] «терять»

− х1оъа [х1о‘а] «яйцо»

− чоъа [чо‘а] «бурка»

− айъан [‘ай‘ан] «поднять»

At the end of the word:

− диъ [ди

‘] «четыре»

− кхоъ [кхо‘] «три»

− пхиъ [пхи‘] «пять».

Unlike German, the hard onset occurs in all

positions in Chechen and has a semantic meaning,

e.g: ‘ан «прострел» – ант «недостаток, дефект».

D.S. Imnaishvili writes that "A. Shiffner did not

designate the laryngeal plosive consonant between

two vowels, ... because he did not hear live Chechen

speech, he wrote ii, uu, iea instead of i'i, u'u, iea [1-

2].

The pronunciation of labialized front vowels ö, ü

is not easy for students, as there are no such sounds in

Russian, but this phenomenon is not a problem in the

Chechen schools.

In German, the phoneme (Ø:) is found in most

cases at the beginning and in the middle of a word.

German language

At the beginning of a word:

− (das) ÖI – (Ø: l) – масло, нефть

− (die) «Ökonomie – (Økono’mi:) – экономия

− Öde (Ø: də) – пустынный, скучный

− In the middle of a word:

− (die) Börze [b Ø: zə] – кошелек, биржа

− (die) Mönr [m Ø: və] – чайка

− böse [b Ø: zə] – злой, сердитый

The German long, closed, labialized sound (Ø:)

corresponds to the phoneme oь in the Vainakh

languages. In most cases, the letter combination is

transmitted by the diphthon (

уоь) and (уоь). This

diphthong is widely used in Chechen in all positions.

At the beginning of a word:

− оьшу [уоьшу] – нуждается, нужно

− оьцуьйтура [уоьцуьтура] – позволял брать,

покупать

− оьт1уьйтура [уоьт1уьтура] – позволял

рваться

− уохьуьйтура [уоьхьуьтура] – позволял

показывать

In the middle of a word:

− лоьраш [луоьраш] – врачи

− боьха [буоьха] – грязный

− лоьхуьйтура [луоьхуьтура] – позволял

искать

− гоьнаш [гоуьнаш] – матрацы

At the end of a word:

− гоь [гуоь] – матрац

Phonetic and Grammatical Parallels in Modern German and Chechen

155

− доь [дуоь] – сеять

− кхоь [кхуоь] – фасоль (Desheriev, 1963)

The labialized long phoneme (у:) in German

corresponds to the long monophthong (уь) in

Chechen.

German language Chechen language

− (der) Süden [zy:dən] – юг

суьдхо [суьдхо] – судья

− (dis) Güte [gy:tə] – доброта

[гуьржийн] – грузинский

The labialized short form (у) in German

corresponds to the short form (уь) in Chechen.

German language Chechen language

− brüllen [brüllən] – рычать

− дуьжа [дуьжа] – ложиться

− (die) Dürre [dyrə] – засуха

− туьха [туьха] – соль

The long sound (у:) in German corresponds to the

long diphthong уьй in Chechen.

German language Chechen language

− (die) Tür [ty: r] – дверь

туьра [туьйра] – сказка

− (das) Grün [gry: n] – зелень

гуьйрие [гуьйрие] – осень

It should be noted that in most cases the Chechen

language uses words with a diphthong (уьй).

In Ingush there is no long monophthong (уь:), but

instead there are diphthongs in the same words (ий)

and (уo).

Chechen language Ingush language

− буьду (буь да)

бийда (бийда) – сырой

− чуьна (чуь на)

чуона (чуона) — чугунный

The Chechen short monophthong (уь)

corresponds to the short sounds in the Ingush

language (и), (у).

Chechen language Ingush language

− муьста (муьста)

− миста (миста) – кислый

− туьха (туьха)

− тух (тух) –

соль

There are no sounds in the Ingush language like

the German long sound (у:) and short sound (у).

Consequently, the correct pronunciation of the

German long (у:) and short (у) sounds for the Ingush

audience needs to be given, and examples of the

related Chechen language also need to be given.

Since this sound does not exist in Russian, it is

difficult to set this sound correctly. In teaching

German to students in a national classroom it is not

particularly difficult because these sounds can be

found in their languages. Y. D. Desheriev notes that

nasalized phonemes are present in the Batsbi

language.

Nasalization of such vowels is pronounced

strongly enough (almost like in French) (Desheriev,

1963):

ламна – горные, кортма – головные,

(ва:ха) – жить, ваха – идти.

Nasalized consonants are rare in the Vainakh

languages. However, nasalization of vowel phonemes

under the influence of a subsequent "н" is quite

common. The nasalization of consonants can be

observed in the following words of the Chechen and

Ingush languages.

German language Chechen language

Ingush language

lang – длинный маьнга – кровать

миенги – кровать

singen – петь гаьнгли – качели.

klаьнк – мальчик

bringen – приносить аьнгли

– стекло

мангал – коса

die Wange der – щека мангал – коса

хьуонк – черемша

der Onkel – дядя хьонка –

черемша

Nasalized vowels occur more frequently in

Vaynakh languages than nasalized consonants. Any

vowel in the Vaynakh languages can be nasalized.

Vowels in the Vaynakh languages are nasalized in

any word position. In Chechen, nasalized sounds

occur more frequently than in Ingush. Я. Vagapov

writes that vowels in different parts of speech can be

nasalized [8, p. 159].

See: nouns in the genitive case:

− ламна – ламнан – горные,

− неха – нехан – людей; людской;

possessive pronoun:

са – сан – я, мой, вай – вайн – мы, наш;

Quantitative and ordinal numerals:

шолг1ачу – шолгIачун, цхьанна – цхьаннан,

in the second – to the second, one – to one;

adjectives:

− кIай – кIайчу – (кIайнан) —

белый,

− цIие – цIиечун – (цIиенан) – красный;

infinitive form of the verb:

− ваха – вахан – пойти,

− ва – ван – прийти.

Long and short vowels

«Long and short vowels are phonetically opposed

in all Nakh languages:

Batz (ва:х(а)!), Ingush (ва:ха!),

Chechen (ва:ха!) – живи (о мужчине), but Batz.

(ваха).

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ингушский (ваха), чеченск. (веха) – опьяни!»

(Desheriev, 1963).

Long and short vowels in both German and

Vaynakh have a word distinctive function.

German language

− kam [ka:m] – приходил

− (der) Kamm [kam] – гребень, расческа,

гребень (волны гор)

− (dеr) Staat [sta:t] – государство, штат

− (die) Stadt [stad] – город

− (die) Saat [za:t] – посев, всходы, семя

− satt [zat] – сытый, насыщенный

− (dаs) Beet [be: t] – грядка, клумба

− (das) Bett [bet] – кровать, постель

Chechen language Ingush language

ваха (ва ха) ваха (ва ха) – жить

ваха (в

а ха) ваха (ваха)' – пойти

лала (ла ла) лала (ла ла) – расплавиться,

плавиться

лалла! (лалла) лалла! (лалла) – гони

(imperative form from гнать)

Chechen language Ingush language

веза (ве за) веза (вце за) – любить

веза (веза) веза (виеза) – тяжелый

догIа (догIа) д1аг1а (д1оаг1а) –

ключ от замка

догIа (догIа) д1

ог1а (д1уог1а) –

дождь

Umlaut and ablaut

The German vocalization system is characterized

by changes in the root vowel. There are two types of

vowel changes: umlaut, ablaut.

An umlaut (or "mutation") is a partial assimilation

of a root vowel to an ending vowel, that is, an umlaut

in German refers to the transformation of a vowel of

a more stressed syllable by the influence of "i" or "j"

of the subsequent less stressed syllable. An umlaut is

formed by the effect of "i" or "j" on "a" of a root

syllable. The short "a" of the root syllable, influenced

by the "i" or "j" of the following syllable, was

transformed (mutated) into "e":

− in Gothic sandja, -íagjan, satjan;

− in ancient German sendan, legan, setzan;

− in modern German senden, legen, setzen.

According to V. M. Zhirmunsky, later on, the

umlaut was extended to other vowels "...the umlaut

covers all posterior vowels (a, o, i), both long and

short, the corresponding diphthongs, and also extends

to those cases of vowel mutation of short 'a' that did

not exist in Old Upper German (the so-called

secondary umlaut ɑ).

Thus, the following alternations are established:

comp. ɑ -e (or ɑ), o - o, u –и»…". And then V. M.

Zhirmunsky notes: "In New German, as a result of the

diphthongization of the narrow long и, ie and the

extension of the diphthong öu, the alternation аи – äи

(ей) (ɔу) took place, comp. Naus – Nauser (comp. и –

iu), laufen – Zaufer (cf.. ои – oü)".

A similar process of transformation of the

phonetic and morphological structure of nominal and

verbal stems in connection with the emergence and

spread of umlaut can be traced in the Vainakh

languages. The formation of umlaut was developing

in the Chechen and Ingush languages during their

independent development.

The development of umlaut in the Chechen and

Ingush languages was accompanied by a

rearrangement of the ancient phonetic and

morphological structure of the nominal and verbal

roots:

Chech. imper. mood (таса – посыпь),

present time (тосу//тоса),

just past tense (теси) etc.

As Prof. Y. D. Desheriev notes, there are two

kinds of umlaut in the Vainakh languages: the labial

and the soft umlaut.

In Chechen and Ingush, the "lip" umlaut is preserved

in verb forms formed from the Present Tense stems:

чеч. олун – говорящий,

охун – пашущий;

Past Imperfect Tense

олура – говаривал,

охура – вспахивал.

In Chechen and Ingush, "soft" umlaut also occurs

in the stems of verb forms that go back to the stems

of the just past tense: чеч. (аьхна) / (э:хина) –

вспахал недавно (аьлла) / (элина) – сказала

недавно.

The alternation of vowel bases, similar to the

German one, exists in the Vainakh languages. Prof.

Y. D. Desheriev notes that these alternations were

established as a result of the "soft" umlaut.

е – а (даха – диехна) – опьянел

(ваха – виехна) – ушел

(ваша – вежарий) – брат, братья

ö – о г1о – г1оьнаш – помощь, содействие,

защита.

Ablaut is an ancient phonetic phenomenon, which

is peculiar not only to the Germanic but also to the

Indo-European languages. Ablaut is a vowel

alternation, which does not depend on the

vocalization of the following syllable. In German, as

in the other Indo-European languages, the ablaut has

a word-forming function. The first is evident in strong

verbs: the ablaut forms the basis of a whole paradigm

of strong verbs (strong verb series). In modern

German, there are 8 rows of ablauts (die

Ablautsreihen).

Phonetic and Grammatical Parallels in Modern German and Chechen

157

The characteristic feature of the first series is the

diphthong "ei": in the infinitive, preterite, and

participle the same vowel appears – the short or long

phoneme "i", e.g: reiten – ritt – geritten – ездить

верхом, greifen – griff – gegriffen – хватать,

схватить, schweigen – schwieg – geschwiegen –

молчать, treiben – trieb – getrieben – гнать,

понуждать.

The characteristic feature of the second series is

the long "i" in the infinitive. In the preterite and

participle there is the same vowel, the long or short

phoneme "o", e.g.: fliegen – flog – geflogen –

летать, schließen – schloß – gechlossen –

закрывать.

The characteristic feature of the third row is the

combination of a sonorant and any other consonant:

(a) The vowels in this alternate as follows: e – а –

о – helfen – half – geholfen – помогать;

b) nasal with a consonant: nd, ng, nk,

In this case the vowels are alternated i, ɑ, u; e.g.:

binden – band – gebunden – связывать.

The characteristic feature of the fourth row is the

vowels: е – ɑ – о: nehmen – nahm – genommen –

брать.

A characteristic feature of the fifth row is the

vowels: (as in rows 3 and 4) any consonant other than

a sonorant: е – а – о: geben – gaq – gegeben – давать.

The characteristic feature of the sixth row is the

vowels а – и – а tragen – trug – getragen – нести.

The characteristic feature of the seventh row is the

vowel i. In the preterite the vowels in the infinitive

are different, but they always coincide with the third

form, e.g.: halten – hielt — gehalten – держать,

heißen – hieß – geheißen – звать, называться,

rufen – rief – gerufen – кричать.

The characteristic feature of the 8th row is the

vowel o in the second and third forms; the infinitive

can be е, ö, ü, ɑ, e.g.:

schmelzen – schmolz,

geschmolzen – плавить,

löschen – losch – geloschen – тушить.

In word formation, too, ablaut is predominantly

associated with strong verbs and leads to versatility in

the substantivation of verbs, e.g.:

sprechen – sprach – Besprechung – Sprache,

говорить – говорил — обсуждение — язык

(разговор),

stehen – stand – Stehen – Stand,

стоять – стоял – стояние – место, ларек,

киоск,

kommen – kam – Kommen,

приходить – приходил – приход.

Primary alternation in the Vainakh languages, as

Professor Y. D. Desheriev notes, is a phenomenon

similar to the Germanic ablaut (Desheriev, 1963).

Ablaut in Vainakh languages can be observed in the

formation of the category of singularity, plurality and

alternation of verbal stems, for example, (а) on (ие):

хахкар – прокатить

хиехкар – катать

лахкар – гнать

лиехкар – гнали (много раз);

лачкъар – прятаться

лиечкъар – прятались (неоднократно)

Most often in the Vainakh languages ablaut

appears in nominative stems, opposing the stems of

nominative and indirect cases in some words, the

stems of different indirect cases in others. For

example:

Chechen-Ingush

Nominative case:

дуог – сердце,

Ergative case:

Chechen дагуо (vowel alternation уо – а), Ingush

диэгуо: (vowel alternation

уо – иэ).

А. Gandaloeva in her work «The Modern Ingush

Language. Phonetics» concludes that «Ablaut is also

widespread in the Nakh languages, but in lesser

degree in Ingush» (Gandaloeva, 2019).

The phenomenon of vowel alternation when the

verb form is changed is considered in the work of R.

I. Dolakova. When forming the form of the just past

tense from verbs with the root "ие", this root

diphthong turns into long «и» (ий).

Chechen language

д – иезар – д – из – и– быть необходимым,

любить

д – иелар – д – лз – и– смеяться

д – иешар – д – иш – и– читать, учиться

тиедар – тид – и – резать

тиешар – тиш – и – верить

4 CONCLUSIONS

From the foregoing, we can conclude that both

German and Vaynakh languages are characterized by:

1. The asphyxiation of voiseless consonants (p),

(t), (k).

2. Similar sounds (Ø), (у), (а) – (уоь), (уо), (а).

3. Long and short vowel phonemes.

4. Presence of umlaut and ablaut.

5. The presence of glottal plosive stop in German

and in the Vainakh languages.

The phenomena that make up the contrasts in

Vainakh and German are as follows:

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1. Palatalization of consonants is absent in

German, to consonants in the Vainakh

languages it is inherent to some extent.

2. Unlike German, the glottal plosive stop occurs

in all positions in Chechen

REFERENCES

The Chechen language, 1999. p. 160.

Almurzaeva, P. Kh., Dzambulatova, M. M., 1997. Semantic

similarity of the modal verb lassen in German with the

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scientific conference). Theses of reports of the regional

scientific-practical conference dedicated to the 25th

anniversary of the Chechen State University. p. 263.

Almurzaeva, P. Kh., 2012. The borrowed vocabulary of the

Chechen language.

Almurzaeva, P. Kh., 2012. The borrowed vocabulary of the

Chechen language. p. 151.

Almurzaeva, P. Kh., Kharikhanova, B., A., 2018.

Interference at the phonetic and pronunciation level.

Izvestiya. 2 (10). pp. 105-109.

Akhmanova, O. С., 2013. Dictionary of linguistic terms. p.

608.

Vagapov, A. D., 2011. Etymological Dictionary of the

Chechen Language. p. 733.

Vagapov, Y., 1962. Nasalization of vowels in the modern

Chechen literary language. Izvestia. 3. 2. Linguistics.

p. 159.

Gandaloeva, A. Z., 2019. The modern Ingush language.

Phonetics. (Textbook for university students). p. 200.

Desheriev, Yu. D., 1963. Comparative and Historical

Grammar of Nakh Languages and the Problems of the

Origin and Historical Development of Mountain

Caucasian Peoples. p. 556.

Some Phonetic and Grammatical Parallels and Contrasts

in Literary German, Chechen and Ingush. - Issues of

Philology., 1970. A Collection of Articles by Teachers

of the Chechen-Ingush Pedagogical Institute. Grozny,

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The system of the past tense in the Chechen and Ingush

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Phonetic and Grammatical Parallels in Modern German and Chechen

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