Enhancing Leadership and Management Effectiveness: Leveraging

Actor-Network Theory for Project Risk Mitigation

Arthur Wilson

, Brad Carey

and Amma Buckley

School of Design and Built Environment, Curtin University, Kent Street, Perth, Australia

Faculty of Humanities, Curtin University, Kent Street, Perth, Australia

Keywords: Project Management, Project Leadership, Project Success Factors, Actor-Network Theory, Risk Management.

Abstract: Investment decisions of leaders and managers influence the adoption and use of digital technologies that then

transform their organization’s products, services, and operations. To foster transformation, project

management methods are commonly used. However, project failure rates often exceed success rates

regardless of the industry sector, or project management methodology. While project success has traditionally

been measured in terms of time, cost, and quality, recent research suggests that success includes the dynamic

interaction between multiple actors in diverse networks. Traditional project management methods may not

adequately identify and help mitigate the risks associated with complex and dynamic influence of leadership

and management on project success. This study uses actor-network theory (ANT) to examine opportunities

to enhance the effectiveness of leadership and management in projects and mitigating associated risks. By

doing so, this study aims to provide insights into how organizations can improve project success rates.

1 INTRODUCTION

According to Burga and Rezania (2017), effective

project management aims to assist organisations

successfully undertake and deliver small to large

initiatives in a manner that considers the time to

undertake the project, that the project is delivered on

budget and within agreed quality parameters with

minimal unplanned disruption to the organisation.

The time, cost and quality criteria is referred by

Hughes, Rana, and Simintiras (2017) as the iron

triangle of accountability that encompasses the

leadership and management of an organization.

Leadership and management influence project

strategic and operational activities to move

stakeholders from a current state to the post project

desired state. To make this transition the

identification and mitigation of risk contributes to

effective project control (Burga and Rezania, 2017)

To assist organisations transition from the current

state to the desired state project management

methodologies are commonly used. However,

previous studies have shown, even with the use of

https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7377-052X

https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7582-2840

https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9570-7743

commonly used project management methodologies,

many organisations find that projects success is

elusive (Baxter and Sommerville, 2011; Bloch,

Blumberg, and Laartz, 2012; Brosnan et al., 2023).

An international sample of over 5,400 large

information technology projects (defined as projects

exceeding US$15 million in cost) had more than

US$66 billion in cost overruns (Bloch et al., 2012).

According to some estimates, the failure rate for

technology implementations exceeds 60 per cent (De

Waal, van Outvorst, and Ravesteyn, 2016; Pflügler,

Malzer, Jäschke, Wiesche, and Krcmar, 2018), and

rework to correct poor software development due to

inadequate development of specifications for

functional and business requirements exceeds more

than US$45 billion annually (Pimchangthong and

Boonjing, 2017).

According to Pflügler et al. (2018), the rate of

failure for digital technology initiatives has not

significantly decreased in the past decade. These

failures have social and economic impacts and can

negatively influence the organisation and people

working within it (Baxter and Sommerville, 2011;

Wilson, A., Carey, B. and Buckley, A.

Enhancing Leadership and Management Effectiveness: Leveraging Actor-Network Theory for Project Risk Mitigation.

DOI: 10.5220/0012153700003598

In Proceedings of the 15th International Joint Conference on Knowledge Discovery, Knowledge Engineering and Knowledge Management (IC3K 2023) - Volume 3: KMIS, pages 109-116

ISBN: 978-989-758-671-2; ISSN: 2184-3228

109

Bughin, Catlin, Hirt, and Willmott, 2018; Pflügler et

al., 2018).

The high failure rates may be due to myriad

reasons (Hewett, 2023). These reasons include issues

such as more attention allocated to technical

consideration of sociotechnical initiatives, and less

focus on non-technical and social impacts (Brosnan

et al., 2023; Spector and Wang, 2002; Tatnall and

Gilding, 1999).

Therefore, situations can arise in which state-of-

the-art technology can be developed and

implemented, but the initiative may not be considered

a success because the social aspect of the initiative

was not adequately considered, leading to customer

dissatisfaction (Baxter and Sommerville, 2011).

Therefore project success can be considered as

having two perspectives; one focuses on judgements

and perception of the project outcome, the other focus

is relates to the successful delivery of the project

(Jugdev, Perkins, Fortune, White, and Walker, 2013).

According to Burga and Rezania (2017); Floricel,

Bonneau, Aubry, and Sergi (2014) there is a shift in

the academic literature in which projects are

described as a multidimensional social process rather

than an instrumental process. As part of the social

process, project management integrates consideration

of cultural factors, process reengineering, and use of

technologies that evolve. This integration is guided

by organisational leaders and managers often beyond

the responsibility and accountability afforded to

project managers.

This paper argues that the leadership and

management network of actors have a more

influential role then outlined in current project

management methodologies and frameworks. The

leadership and management network of actors

influences risks associated with the availability and

allocation of human and financial resources,

stakeholder feedback, promote incentives, and

reprimand negative stimulus and other factors that

influence project success.

In this study we contribute to the literature on

project management, in particular how leadership and

management influence the success of projects in two

significant ways. First, we offer an informed

description of how leadership and management

influence strategic factors that include project

governance and accountability, activities that

influence organisational culture as well as operational

activities related to processes and technologies that

support the desired state. Second, we offer informed

understanding of how management and leadership is

enacted in projects can influence multiple networks to

contribute to project success.

2 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Leadership and Management in

Project Management as a Basic

Concept

Leadership and management is recognised as an

enabler for fostering knowledge management within

organisations. Additionally, leadership and

management helps develop trust with stakeholders

and helps motivate staff to participate in projects

(Asrar-ul-Haq and Anwar, 2016). In successful,

complex initiatives actions of leaders and managers

develop the culture, the expertise, and change the way

actors and networks interact. To foster changes,

leadership and management develop and implement

strategies and identify the actors to advance them

(Papenbroock and Österberg, 2017). These changes

are often resisted, and not initially embraced

(Alexander and Silvis, 2014; Gurteen, 1999; Hislop,

Bosua, and Helms, 2018). The literature describes

reasons for this resistance, including organisations’

leaders and managers providing little clarity about

how the project will achieve the desired change and

neglecting to encourage and support knowledge

sharing across multi- disciplinary networks (Corfield

and Paton, 2016).

Widely used project management methods and

standards such as the Project Management Body of

Knowledge (PMBoK) and Projects in Controlled

Environments (PRINCE2) are still based on time,

cost and quality (Hughes et al., 2017).

As organisations increase reliance on technology,

the digital competence of leadership and management

actors is essential (Marnewick and Marnewick,

2021). This knowledge can assist increase

understanding of social, economic, and political shifts

that occur as a result of the adoption of digital

technologies within organisations. Furthermore, as

artificial intelligence, automation, robotics, and other

digital technologies evolve and become more

mainstream, there are opportunities for the

competencies to transform governance, thus allowing

opportunities for more efficient delivery of services

(Jones, 2017).

2.2 Actor-Network Theory

Actor-network theory (ANT) was selected as a

suitable research framework as it enables

consideration and examination of dynamic, iterative

and socially constructed phenomenon and how they

interact (Latour, 1987, 1996). The use of ANT in

KMIS 2023 - 15th International Conference on Knowledge Management and Information Systems

110

project management provides an opportunity for a

more reflective approach in which to view complex

project activities, including the dynamic interaction

and the transformation of networks involved as

projects evolve. According to Callon (1986), ANT

aligns well with identifying and tracing association

between project human and non-human actors and

processes.

A benefit of ANT is its ability to consider and

analyse iterations, or changes to an initiative or

project as it progresses from a starting phase to the

development and a completion stage (Wilson, 2021).

Within the ANT framework, the relationships

between the actants (human, non-human, processes)

and their respective networks interact with the

purpose of resolving conflicts and stability (Callon,

1986; Latour, 1987, 1996; Sage, Dainty, and Brookes,

2011).

There are four stages of ANT: problemisation,

interessesment, enrolment and mobilisation. From an

operational perspective, these stages overlap instead

of operating in a sequential manner.

Table 1: ANT stages and descriptions.

Stage Description

Problemisation The initial stage in project

management where relationships

are initially defined and charters are

established.

Interessesment The stage in project management

where operationally the project

exists and relationships among

actors are dynamic in their

enactment of accountability.

Enrolment In the project management context

(Callon,1986) enrolment is the stage

when relationships are translated

successfully by actors through the

use of power.

Mobilisation The methods of leadership and

management are generalised and

able to be mobilized or translated

for use in other similar projects.

Like ANT, project management methodologies

includes stages of change. Depending on the project

management methodology, the following examples

are of PMBOK and PRINCE2 methodologies, the

stages can involve:

• Project initiation or conception;

• Planning or feasibility;

• Executing or implementation; and

• Monitoring / controlling or operation

(Skogmar, 2015; Wideman, 2002).

The project management and ANT stages can be

aligned allowing more thorough consideration of

sociotechnical influences. Within their respective

stages, iterations of actions are performed until the

stage is considered complete.

Table 2: Alignment of ANT and project management

stages.

Stage: ANT Stage: Project

Management

Description

Problemisation Initiation or

conception

Initial stage,

problem and

initial

stakeholders

identified.

Interessesment Planning or

feasibility

Human and

non-human

actors allocated,

relationships

form,

engagement and

interaction

between actors

develop.

Enrolment Executing or

implementation

Production of

project

deliverables

commence.

Mobilisation Monitoring,

controlling, or

operation

Project

activities are

monitor, risk

identified and

mitigated.

It is important to note that ANT has little to do

with the study of social networks but focuses instead

on actor’s interpretations and translations of the

project as it evolves through its various stages of

development. The actor-network determines how the

actor translates activities and influences how it

interacts and involves other actors.

We expect to see that project leadership and

management will follow stages described by (Callon,

1986). During these stages the intentions of

leadership and management is translated through

well-defined organisational governance documents

including risk registers and project methodologies

and frameworks such as the PMBOK and PRINCE2.

Relationships between leaders, manager and actors

evolve through the project stages. We anticipate that

ANT provides a framework to study and verify how

leadership and management are embedded and guide

project progress.

Enhancing Leadership and Management Effectiveness: Leveraging Actor-Network Theory for Project Risk Mitigation

111

3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

AND BACKGROUND

The essence of this paper is the study of the ways in

which five community organisations, based in five

different Western Australian (WA) local government

areas (two rural and three metropolitan areas) use

digital technologies as a primary means of

engagement with residents and to support and extend

the residents’ knowledge of their local communities.

The five community organisations are aligned to three

separate categories: social enterprise, community

enterprise, and local government.

This study considers how leadership and

management actions contribute to project success by

monitoring and mitigating risk related to community

engagement and associated knowledge management

and sociotechnical initiatives. This is done by

investigating the potential opportunities and

limitations of models and frameworks for

transforming how five WA community organisations

engage and manage the knowledge of residents

through digital technologies.

Consideration was given to the possibility that

leadership and management perspectives embedded

within the models and frameworks used to help guide

the transformation of how community organisations

engage and interact with residents through digital

technologies are insufficient. If this is the case, then

the insufficiency may contribute to the high failure

rate of efforts to transform community engagement

and the associated knowledge management process.

3.1 Methodology

This study is an exploratory, qualitative design, in

keeping with the emerging nature of knowledge

development in this area. A key aspect in considering

the integration of community and digital technology

is whether the desired change is sustainable across a

variety of social, economic, and political networks

within a community. To gain some understanding of

how changes have evolved, and the extent to which

these have been durable, the study incorporates a

longitudinal study of comparative cases. The

inductive study design enables divergent experiences

to be documented at each site. This approach will

offer insights into the extent to which local context is

important and identify common elements across the

participating organisations. The longitudinal aspect

of this study enables the researcher to determine the

ways in which sociotechnical integration has evolved

over time, in order to examine its influence upon how

organisations use digital technologies to interact with

community residents. The findings of the

comparative cases will indicate the similarities or

differences of integration approaches and the affects

of such integrations.

3.2 ANT as a Method

As a method, ANT studies follow actors and observes

network creators through whose perspective they

attempt to interpret the process of network

development.

A review of the data collected from primary and

secondary sources suggested that ANT was a useful

theoretical lens as well as a method in which to

analyse, interpret, and explain the data gathered from

the organisations. ANT has also been applied as a

method to identify reasons for IS projects failing in

organisations and then used to guide their recovery

(Pollack and Clegg, 2023). ANT was adopted because

community organisations' engagement with residents

is a relationship-based sociotechnical activity, in

which people, text, devices, and infrastructures take

the form of interdependent networks. ANT focuses on

the ability to trace intricate networks and their

associations with human and non-human networks

(Doolin and Lowe, 2002).

ANT was used in other studies to analyse,

describe and guide complex projects; to foster

changes to organisation practice and behaviour

through digital technologies (Linde and Linderoth,

2006); and to assist people to recognise then consider

the consequences of intended or non-intended actions

and unpredictable behaviour related to digital

transformation projects (Pollack and Clegg, 2023;

Sage et al., 2011). These ANT concepts align well to

the needs identified in this study.

This research, through the framework described

in this study, aims to synthesise risks. These risks

include the complexities concerning interdependence

of the human and non-human actors related to

leadership and management and activities that guide

projects that changes to organisational practice and

behaviours from a current state to a desired state.

3.3 Data Sources

Data sources for this study included primary and

secondary sources. Semi-structured interviews were

the primary source of data. The intention of the

interviews was to help us better understand and

explore opinions, behaviours and experiences of

participants involved in strategic and/or operational

activities of using digital technology as part of the

community consultative process.

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112

Secondary sources included academic articles,

annual reports and other government reports and

publications, research reports, news reports and

commentary, magazine articles, websites, podcasts

and social media. Secondary data sources allowed

this research to consider theories in a broader context

and contribute to strengthening reliability and validity

of existing theory (Bowler, Julien, and Haddon,

2018). Specifically, insight about current and

proposed consultative activities, plans and strategies

of respective organisations’ digital and face-to-face

interaction with their community members.

Table 3: Data types, sources and purpose.

Data

type

Data source Purpose /

Information

collected

Data links to

research

Primary Sources

Ten

interviews

were

conducted

during the

longitudinal

study.

How

participants

perceive the

world,

experience

with their

organisations

past, present

and future

community

projects.

Opportunity

to understand

and explore

opinions,

participants

behaviours

and

experiences.

Secondary Sources

Annual

reports,

government

reports and

documents

Information

about the

leadership and

management

through

organisational

vision,

mission,

strategic

initiatives,

emerging

operational

focus.

Background

information,

chronology

of events,

key

developments

and accounts

of events

Secondary Sources

Websites

and social

media

Organisational

operational

insights

Background

information

and to

provide links

to past and

contemporary

development.

Provides a

link to news

and other

online

resources

3.4 Results

Across each of the five community organisations

networks undertaking projects to change how their

they engaged with residents, there was a lack of

awareness of the potential value that can be gained

from engagement with residents and better managing

their community knowledge. Consequently, there

was little evidence of a documented vision, or

strategic planning, or activities to align and combine

community engagement with knowledge

management.

Processes and technologies to support project

deliverables, including content management systems

and archives seemed to evolve organically and not

through a strategy supported by organisational

leadership and management. Similarly, there was no

specific framework or business model adopted by

leaders and managers with the purpose of engaging

with residents and managing knowledge resulting

from such engagement. A stronger focus on the

creation of networks of actors to for alliances to assist

in promoting community engagement and associated

knowledge management activities would prove

beneficial. These alliances may include actors with

knowledge and experience as content providers,

training providers, researchers, technology providers.

With the exception of one network there was little

evidence of strategic business planning, policies, and

guidelines for aligning community engagement and

community knowledge.

As a result of the lack of a vision, strategic

direction setting, plans for community engagement

and associated knowledge management activities can

continue to evolve organically, including from the

bottom up. The implications can influence the

resources allocated to the initiative, speed of

adoption, the ability to gain support of stakeholders

and form deeper alliances that can support

community engagement and community knowledge

management activities. Such alliances may contribute

to expertise and knowledge to enrich the community

engagement and knowledge and influence residents.

However, these results are beyond the realm of

traditional project managers, project management

models and frameworks. The traditional role of the

project manager consists of ensuring that the project

is completed successfully, on time, and within

budget, to a specified quality, while also managing

stakeholder expectations and maintaining a positive

team dynamic. The risk identified in this study is

beyond the role of the project manager and cannot

easily be delegated from organisational leaders and

managers.

Enhancing Leadership and Management Effectiveness: Leveraging Actor-Network Theory for Project Risk Mitigation

113

4 DISCUSSION

ANT as described by Callon (1986) and summarised

by (Floricel et al., 2014) as stages of problemisation,

interessesment, enrolment and mobilisation are

described and dynamically overlap and interact with

each other, while each actor network operates

differently with a common goal being successful

project delivery. During the problemisation stage

actors are engaged through translating actants such as

a project charter and / or a project scope. During

interessesment, deliberations between actors and

through translating actants roles are accountabilities

are refined, the power of leaders and managers are

used to influence, reward, and punish. During the

enrolment the power is applied across multiple

networks to transform from the current state to the

desired state. Finally, through mobilisation the

project is operational and lessons gained can assist

other initiatives.

The leadership and management described

throughout the transformative journey is translated

through actors in a socially constructed environment.

The use of ANT helps identify networks,

relationships between networks and translating actors

through which accountabilities are shaped and

influence the success of projects.

5 CONCLUSIONS

5.1 Power Remains with Leaders and

Managers, not the Project Manager

The delegation of power between networks was

identified as a prominent factor that can influence the

success of sociotechnical solutions. Understanding

the power of actor networks, how the power evolves

through the life of a project and the limits of project

managers power and influence can help reduce the

risk associated with sociotechnical solutions and thus

project failure. In this study, we explored the way the

power of leaders and managers influences strategic

and operational networks activities. How this power

is wielded can impact on, and influence risk

associated with sociotechnical initiatives. A

contentious projection of power, or ill-defined actions

from leadership and management networks can create

animosity that may be difficult for some projects to

overcome.

5.2 Manage Complexity as a Risk

A key finding in the literature, and supported through

the analysis of interviews, and through observations

of the online presence of organisations and their

operations, is the complexity of their journey

transform community engagement and associated

knowledge management activities. The broad range

of issues, the iterative process of change to internal

and external networks, their cultures, and associated

power dynamics during sociotechnical

transformation can be complex.

Managing the risk of complexity was identified in

the research as a significant reason for the high failure

rate of sociotechnical initiatives such as community

engagement and knowledge management. However,

many of the sociotechnical models and frameworks

did not appear to recognise, or much less,

acknowledge complexity. How leaders and managers

identify and manage risk linked to complex issues can

be able to be identified, better understood and

mitigated. ANT takes into consideration that the

power relationships between the networks are

dynamic; and it is capable of tracing the ebb and flow

of the power dynamics between networks, within and

between changes to stakeholders according to stages

of implementation or events.

5.3 Theoretical Contributions

This study makes two main contributions. First, it

supports the view that it is not just the project

manager or the product owner that's ultimately

accountable for project success. A sustained level of

leadership and management network engagement is

important in the successful delivery of projects. This

includes and is also broader than the traditional roles

of project managers. The analysis of the longitudinal

study reveals that project leadership and management

is not conceptualised in the project management

literature and requires more consideration and

accountability of networks and actors that influence

project time, cost and quality. Activities to influence

these networks and actors are often beyond the

responsibility of the project manager.

Secondly the study demonstrates that project

actions and associated accountability was undertaken

in an ad hoc manner, or not by design. As the project

progresses the plans and actions of leadership and

management evolve to address risks of various

network stakeholders. This results in efforts to create

a stabilised environment from multiple and differing

human and nonhuman networks and artefacts to

influence, gain support for and contribute to the

KMIS 2023 - 15th International Conference on Knowledge Management and Information Systems

114

project. From an ANT perspective the project

becomes a collective social activity through which

translation of being accountable is determined by

actor networks. To achieve and progress the project

leadership and management should be conceptualised

as a collaborative activity not just having

accountability vested in the project manager and

project owner.

5.4 Project Management Implications

Leadership, management and accountability are

central to organisational control systems as well as

project governance. Leaders and managers influence

includes more than receiving and providing feedback

on reports related to the project and project status.

The depth of their accountability is distributed across

multiple active and dynamic networks. This role is

often more consequential than the performance of the

project manager and project owner as outlined in

many current project management methodologies and

frameworks. This research seeks to influence

increased consideration of sociotechnical risks within

project management methodologies.

5.5 Limitations and Further Research

In this paper we identify and expand the role and

understanding that leadership and management has

on increasing opportunities for project success. We

demonstrated through ANT how leadership and

management influence traditional projects success

factors identified in contemporary project

management methodologies.

Limitations include risks related to leadership and

management during each project management and

ANT stage can be further explored. Furthermore, the

focus of this study is on the leadership and

management network. Other networks that influence

project success will be the subject of additional

papers. These other networks involve culture,

processes and technologies. Through the

identification, monitoring, managing and mitigating

the risks of these networks, it is believed

opportunities for project success can be increased.

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