Qur’anic Quotes in Al-Hariri’s Maqamats

M. M. Saydumarova

and M. G. Saydumarov

†

Prince Sultan University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia

Tashkent State University of Uzbek Language and Literature named after Alisher Navoi, Tashkent, Uzbekistan

Keywords: Medieval Arabic literature, classic Arabic literature, maqama genre, saj', rhyming prose, al-Hariri, Qur'anic

studies, textual studies.

Abstract: This article examines the use of Qur'anic quotations in the maqamats of Abu Muhammad al-Qasim al-Hariri

(1054-1122), written in saj', that is, rhymed prose, a principal form of medieval Arabic artistic expression.

The Holy Qur'an is known to have greatly influenced Arab and Muslim literature in the Middle Ages. The

spirit of Islam and Qur'anic quotations are reflected not only in religious literature and treatises on Muslim

law, but this influence is also observed in other works of medieval art. This aspect will be examined in the

context of al-Hariri's maqamats, considered to be amongst the finest Arabic novellas focusing on eloquence,

ambition, knowledge across various fields, asceticism, and other themes in medieval Arabic literature. The

maqamats reveal that Qur'anic quotations used in the discourse of two pivotal characters - the narrator and the

protagonist - are skilfully employed in various situations, topics, and relationships. Furthermore, the main

character justifies his actions through these Qur'anic quotations.

1 INTRODUCTION

Maqamats have held a significant place in Arabic

literature since their inception as a genre. Badi'-uz-

Zaman al-Hamadani (969-1057) is acknowledged as

the founder of this genre. However, the genre of

maqama is deemed to have reached its zenith in al-

Hariri's work (Talimat, 1957, 8).

The maqamas are composed in saj', or rhymed prose.

Each sentence is teeming with dozens of metaphors,

similes, parallelisms, exaggerations, ironies,

proverbs, and verses from the Holy Qur'an. Authors

of these works employ the breadth of Arabic

vocabulary extensively, demonstrating skilful use of

wordplay and distinctive features of Arabic writing

throughout the narrative process.

In this respect, the hero of the maqama is not only a

deceptive charlatan but also a highly educated

individual. Moreover, he is a skilled poet and orator

with profound knowledge in fiqh, shari'a, sarf, and

nahw, demonstrating his flair for oratory and verse.

His discourse is poetic, and even when it takes the

form of prose, it represents the pinnacle of maqamats.

Corresponding author

It should be noted here that Hariri's maqamats

profoundly influenced his contemporary, the

renowned scholar Mahmud Abulqasim al-

Zamakhshari (1074-1143). Unlike the works of al-

Hamadani and al-Hariri, which later became a

tradition, al-Zamakhshari introduced a fresh approach

to this genre. His maqamats also bear scholarly value

as they serve as a serious source in other disciplines

such as medieval history, Islamic jurisprudence, and

linguistics.

Numerous authors in Arabic literature attempted to

emulate al-Hamadani and al-Hariri but fell short of

reaching their calibre. Works of this genre continued

to be produced even into the 20th century, with more

than seventy writers known to have explored the

genre of maqama. Attempts to imitate the maqama

genre persist in the present era.

Typically, an author creates a collection of several

dozen maqamats, each of which contains an

independent and complete story. All maqamats are

unified by the constant presence of two characters.

The first of these – the main participant in the

maqamats – is an educated, jovial, ingenious, and

nonchalant wanderer. His speech draws people

towards him, captivates them with his eloquence, and

Saydumarova, M. and Saydumarov, M.

Qur’anic Quotes in Al-Hariri’s Maqamats.

DOI: 10.5220/0012483700003792

Paper published under CC license (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0)

In Proceedings of the 1st Pamir Transboundary Conference for Sustainable Societies (PAMIR 2023), pages 241-245

ISBN: 978-989-758-687-3

241

then he deceives them, robbing them of their money

and possessions.

In each maqama, the primary character emerges in a

new city, often after which the maqama is named. The

setting of events in maqamats is usually a market,

mosque, courthouse, or junction, that is, a crowded

location.

The second constant character is the narrator. The

narration of the entire set of maqamats is executed by

him. He is typically a merchant who journeys from

town to town and encounters the main character, who

presents himself in a new disguise each time.

Sometimes, even though the narrator falls into the

main character's trap, he nonetheless supports the

protagonist. Sooner or later, the narrator recognises

the main character either by his speech or behaviour,

confronts him, argues with him, and reprimands him

for his deceit. The wanderer-hero responds with

clever rhetoric or an impromptu poem and leaves the

narrator to encounter him in a new maqama.

The primary character of the maqamats, his actions,

the foundation of the narrative, and the hero's struggle

to earn a living, all echo the distinct features of the

period in which maqamats originated and evolved.

These amusing, engaging stories and anecdotes about

cunning deceivers, common among the people, can be

found both in the medieval Arab anthology and in

"One Thousand and One Nights".

The main character, with his strange adventures,

belongs to the "Banu Sasan" category.

However, maqamats are not linked to folk literature

in any way. On the contrary, they emerged as an

original literary genre, satisfying all the criteria of

high-style literature.

Critics of medieval Arabic literature greatly

appreciated the maqamats because they were

articulated with exquisite and delicate expressions,

thereby elevating their content to a superior level.

They regard Abu Muhammad al-Qasim al-Hariri, a

descendant of Badi-uz-Zaman al-Hamadani, the

founder of this genre, to be the most skilled master of

the maqama genre. European researchers rank al-

Hamadani first and criticise al-Hariri for what they

perceive as his pompous and reticent language.

Nevertheless, they accept the opinion of Eastern

literary critics.

Abu Muhammad al-Qasim ibn Ali al-Hariri al-Basri

(1054-1122), who was born into the family of a

wealthy silk merchant and landowner in Basra,

received a good education, primarily in

jurisprudence, the Arabic literary language, and its

rich vocabulary. Al-Hariri, like many renowned

writers of his time, lived amongst the Bedouins, who

were then considered to be the custodians of the

"purest" Arabic language, the pre-Islamic poetry, and

the language of the Qur'an.

2 STUDY, RESULTS, AND

DISCUSSION

Quotations from the Holy Qur'an frequently appear in

many of al-Hariri's maqamas: they include verses

from the Qur'an, paraphrasing of Qur'anic

expressions, allusions to imagery in the Qur'an, and

irony.

In al-Hariri's maqamas of Ray, Fiqh, Euphrates, Sur,

Marw, Oman, Rahbiya, and Sasan, certain phrases

from the Qur'anic verses are quoted directly, and all

these quotations are presented in the speech of the

main character, Abu Zayd al-Saruji.

Often, Abu Zayd's speech, whether it be a sermon or

a lecture before a gathering of people, concludes with

such quotations. In these instances, the quotations

serve as evidence or an undeniable conclusion of the

"veracity" of his words, and the Qur'anic verses are

used to fully or partially corroborate their meaning

(Grunebaum, 1981, 142). These quotations blend

seamlessly with the saj’ in the text. Quotations from

the Euphrates and Sasan maqamas may seem

unrhymed from the exterior, but they become an

integral part of the content. When Abu Zayd aged in

the maqama of Sasan, he advised his son that

deception was now the most beneficial profession,

stating, "Do not despair of the mercy of Allah."

“and do not despair of God's comfort.”

This sentence is taken from verse 87 of Surah Yusuf

in the Holy Qur'an.

(“Do not despair of God's comfort. Only disbelieving

people despair of God's comfort.”) (Holy Qur'an,

12:87).

In the maqama of Sawa, the main character, Abu

Zayd al-Saruji, delivers a sermon to the people

assembled in the cemetery, preaching about the

necessity for everyone to remember their mortality

and divine punishment in the Hereafter. He concludes

his sermon with the phrase:

("Indeed, you will come to know.") (Holy Qur'an,

102:4).

In the maqama of Ray, Abu Zayd discusses how the

Almighty Allah will reward his obedient servants

according to their deeds on the Day of Judgment, and

he quotes the following verses from the Holy Qur'an

in his speech:

(Does man think that he will be left without purpose?)

(Holy Qur'an, 75:36)

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(and restrained the soul from desires.) (Holy Qur'an,

79:40).

(“And that man attains only what he strives for, and

that his efforts will be seen.”) (Holy Qur'an, 53:39-

41).

Abu Zayd continues his speech and references verses

7-9 of Surah al-Rahman in the Holy Qur'an.

While comparing the art of accounting and secretarial

work in the maqama of Euphrates, Abu Zayd

concludes his speech with the Qur'anic verse: "... and

between the clerks and us, when they accept bribes,

disagreement will arise, after all, among them were

those who believed and did good deeds" (Hariri, 243).

("Those who believe and do good deeds.") (Holy

Qur'an, 47:2)

In his speech in the Omani maqama, Abu Zayd quotes

the following phrase.

"Shall I guide you to a commerce that will deliver you

from a painful torment?"

This verse, echoed in Abu Zayd's speech, entices the

listener to pay attention to the subsequent words of

the speaker. Abu Zayd concludes his speech with the

following words. “Embark in it the ship.

"In the name of God shall be its sailing and its

anchorage.”) (Holy Qur'an, 11:41)

The Qur'anic verses in the examples above are

presented by the author in the speech of Abu Zayd.

The verses conclude his sermon or public lecture, and

serve as the climax of his speech, followed by poetic

verses on the same topic.

Quoting verses from the Qur'an is also characteristic

of the narrator's speech. For instance, here's a short

excerpt from the maqama of Samarkand.

("I took a place in the middle of the mosque to listen

to the sermon, and people came to worship (literally:

the religion of God) in groups, singly and in pairs.")

The phrase “the people entering God’s religion

(Islam) in multitudes” is quoted from the Holy Qur'an

(Holy Qur'an, 110:2).

Also, in the maqama of Wasit:

The phrase "he swore by the mountain of Tur and by

the name of the holy book" is also quoted from the

Qur'an (Hariri, 334).

("I swear by Mount Tur, by the written Book

(Qur'an)...") (Holy Qur'an, 52:1-3).

In the maqama of Sur, the narrator accidentally

stumbles upon a wedding in the family of "Banu

Sasan", a class of beggars and impoverished

individuals. Addressing those present at the wedding,

the respected sheikh, undoubtedly Abu Zayd, praises

Allah for "ordaining zakat from one’s property,

forbidding the expulsion of poor beggars, and

commanding his servants to give a specific share to

the poor.” (Hariri, 352).

The verse is quoted from the Holy Qur'an (Holy

Qur'an, 70:74). The phrase at the beginning of this

passage is also quoted from the 36th verse of Surah

"Hajj" of the Holy Qur'an, "...eat of them (yourself)

and feed the contented and the beggar." (eat of them

and feed the contented and the beggar.) Words

meaning "you will eat" are adopted.

As the speech in this maqama is given at a wedding,

Abu Zayd has an example from the Holy Qur'an ready

for this occasion. After all, "marriage is ordained by

God" for people.

(O people! We created you from a male (Adam) and

a female (Eve), and made you into (different) peoples

and tribes, that you may know one another.) (Holy

Qur'an, 49:13).

As can be seen from the above, the main character’s

elevated level of vocabulary is reinforced by Quranic

quotations at different stylistic levels of the speech,

which are characteristic of various elements that

harmonise in the content of the maqamats.

The hero of maqamats not only makes a living by

skilfully deceiving but also demonstrates his high

level of education, his knowledge of Islamic law,

grammar, rhetoric, poetry and other fields.

Qur'anic verses are quoted in maqamats as well as in

the form of appropriate expressions. When the

narrator criticises the main character, Abu Zayd, for

lying and cheating, he responds in such a way that his

response is more convincing than the criticism. The

divine word, that is, excerpts (verses) from the Holy

Qur'an and hadiths, are often used as a means of

justification. For instance, in the maqama about “the

Dinar", the hero appears as a lame old man in ragged

clothes, lamenting the changes in his fortune - he was

once rich and generous, but now he has become a

poor old man. In this, as in other roles, he

demonstrates his impressive eloquence and quick-

witted inventiveness. He shows that he is ready to

elevate it (the dinar) to the sky in order to earn it, and

if necessary, to devalue it on the spot. At the end of

the story, al-Harith ibn Hammam recognises Abu

Zayd in the guise of an old man, and asks the

question: "Why did you pretend to be lame?", to

which Abu Zayd responds,

("There is no sin in the lame" - an ironic reference to

the Holy Qur'an, Surah 48, verse 17, which states that

the blind, the lame, and the sick may not participate

in the holy war - Jihad).

"There is no blame on the blind, nor any blame on the

lame, nor any blame on the sick.” (that is, he is not

blamed for not participating in jihad) (Holy Qur'an,

48:17).

Qur’anic Quotes in Al-Hariri’s Maqamats

243

Another example: At the maqama of Dimyat, Abu

Zayd received a reward for his eloquent mastery and,

having devised a false pretext and promising to return

soon, departed from the group. Subsequently, the

narrator discovered a letter written by Abu Zayd to

justify his actions: "Oh, you who aided me, don't

blame me for leaving you, it's not due to fatigue or

arrogance, but because I am abiding by the rule: 'Is

your stomach full? – then leave!'" Let's compare:

(“…And when you have eaten, disperse…”) (Holy

Qur'an, 33:53).

In addition to quoting and paraphrasing the words of

the Qur'an, al-Hariri refers to or alludes to images

from the Qur'an in order to characterise one or another

quality and trait of the heroes of his work. Let's

provide an example. In the maqama of Kufa, Abu

Zayd speaks about his situation and says: "... I was

cast onto this earth as a stranger, I was poor and

hungry, my purse became like the heart of Musa's

mother" (Hariri, 47).

(“The heart of Musa’s mother became vacant. She

was about to disclose him, had We not steadied her

heart, that she may remain a believer.”) (Holy Qur'an,

28:10).

In the maqama of Rahbiya, the Holy Qur'an refers to

Surah Yusuf (No. 12). "... He is considered as

innocent as an innocent wolf in the death of Ibn

Ya'qub." Yusuf's brothers sold him into slavery and

lied to their father, alleging that he had been eaten by

a wolf.

(“They said, “O father, we went off racing one

another, and left Yusuf by our belongings; and the

wolf ate him.”) (Holy Qur'an, 12-17).

Another example is given in the maqama of

"Qahqariya". The reason why this maqama is so

named is because it contains one treatise, which is

recited the same way from beginning to end and from

end to beginning.

"Then they separated and dispersed like the

Sabaeans" (Hariri, 186).

This is a reference to the story of the tribe of Saba in

South Arabia, who were warned by God about a

flood, as told in Surah Saba (#34) of the Qur'an. The

words of Allah Almighty are mentioned in the

commentary of the maqamats.

(“…and We scattered them in every direction.”)

(Holy Qur'an, 34:19).

In the maqama of Makkah, we read the following: "Is

our promise like Urquba's promise? Is there anything

left in Ya’qub's heart?" When the narrator says, "the

need in Ya’qub's heart" here, he refers to the

following verse in Surah Yusuf.

(“It was just a need in the soul of Ya’qub, which he

carried out.”) (Holy Qur'an, 12:67). It is known that

this expression "the need in the heart of Ya’qub" has

become a famous proverb among the people. The

author also mentions Atiya Urquba, which became

the nation’s proverbs when the fulfillment of the

promise was delayed, and "Books of Parables" (Al-

Maydani, 447; Al-Askari, 433; Al-Zamakhshari, 176)

uses the phrase "Urquba's promise" ("The day Urquba

said").

In the maqama of Sinjar (Hariri, 169), the narrator

recalls the events mentioned in Surah Shams, and

admonishes Abu Zayd not to be like Qudar from the

tribe of Thamud. It is mentioned in this surah that the

tribe of Thamud was tormented because they betrayed

Prophet Salih, peace be upon him, and slaughtered the

camel he brought.

Furthermore, this maqama refers to verse 102 of

Surah Al-Baqarah.

It is mentioned that Babylon was renowned for magic

with the phrases (...but who teaches people magic and

what was revealed to the angels named Harut and

Marut in Babylon...).

There is a covert reference to the story mentioned in

Surah Yusuf in the maqama of Zabidiya. The

protagonist brings in a young man and sells him to the

narrator. The narrator overlooks the young man's

hidden message and loses his money.

In the maqama of Saadia, the narrator recounts the

tale of a sheikh. The sheikh brings a boy before a

judge, complaining that the boy does not heed his

instructions. The judge pronounces: "If the child does

not obey his father's commands, the father is

considered to have lost the child." Angered, the boy

recites beautiful verses proclaiming that he does

everything his father instructs him to, that he learned

manners from his father, and he cites the example of

the rejection of Khidr and Musa, peace be upon them.

Here is a reference to verse 77 of Surah Kahf.

(“When they reached the people of a town, they asked

them for food, but they refused to offer them

hospitality.") (Holy Qur'an, 18:77).

There are such lines in Halab's maqam: "May Allah

bless you with this "talo" (the offspring of the deer),

just as He blessed the non-existent and the non-

existent," referring to the 35th verse of Surah Noor.

(“The lamp is within a glass. The glass is like a

brilliant planet, fuelled by a blessed tree, an olive tree,

neither eastern nor western.”) (Holy Qur'an, 24:35).

The intriguing aspect of this example is how the "no

and no" can possess a blessing. In order to

comprehend this phrase, the reader must have a

philological sense and he must have committed the

Holy Qur’an to memory, as well as being capable of

interpreting it. In the Holy Quran, it is stated that the

olive tree is "neither eastern nor western".

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When Abu Zayd delivered a speech in the maqam of

Basra, he portrayed this city, founded by Caliph

Umar, as "the symbol of purity”, and he recalled a

number of scholars along with their qualities. For

instance, he describes Abu Ubaydah, the collector of

"Ayyam al-Arab" as a "scholar of all times", Abu

Aswad al-Duali as "the founder of grammar", and

Khalil ibn Ahmad as the one who determined the

metre of poems. In his speech, he uses expressions

such as "Ya’qub's lament", "When you decide, then

rely on God", and "this is where you and I part ways".

"Ya'qub's lament" refers to the story of Yusuf's father

Ya'qub, peace be upon him, in Surah Yusuf. "When

you decide to do something, rely on God" is a

reference to verse 159 of Surah Al-Imran.

(“And when you have decided, then rely on God”).

The phrases "This is the parting between you and me"

and "Would that I was to be forgotten" in the poetic

passage of this maqama are taken from Surahs Kahf

and Maryam.

At this point, in our view, it is essential to emphasise

a significant aspect in Arabic literature, particularly

in al-Hariri's maqamats – that is the reflection of the

spirit of Islam (Grunebaum, 176-191). After all, the

entirety of medieval Arab and Muslim world's

literature, heavily influenced by the Qur'an, was

imbued with the Qur'anic worldview and enriched

with quotations from the holy book and allusions to

Qur'anic imagery.

This trend is apparent in Hariri's works, which are a

unique genre combining features of prose and poetry,

merging elegant literature and vivid speech on

various topics, as seen in all medieval authors' works.

In Hariri's ascetic maqamats, the character Abu

Zayd's speeches, the transience of earthly pleasures,

divine retribution for any sin, and the call to perform

good deeds are portrayed. The maqams collections of

Sana, Sav, Ray, Samarkand, Ramliya, Tinnis and

Basra were written in this style. In the examination of

these maqamats, the author's image, "closely

associated with the style of the oratorical art of

exposition", can be more vividly discerned.

(Polyakov, 193).

The author of the 11th-16th centuries was always a

khatib (or a preacher) to a certain degree... hence the

oratorical style of narration can be sensed throughout

the entire literature of the Middle Ages. (Likhachyov,

133).

3 CONCLUSION

In conclusion, it can be stated that 26 out of the 50

maqamats composing the collection contain Quranic

quotations. In 35 instances, 18 maqamats refer to one

image or another from the Qur'an, and 5 maqams

quote the verses of the Qur'an using borrowed

expressions.

Consequently, we have examined a) direct

quotations, b) quotations of the Qur'anic verses in the

form of catchphrases, c) irony and allusions to the

images of the Qur'an, and finally, word-formative

forms. These are predominantly characteristic of the

speech of Abu Zayd al-Saruji, but can also be found

in the narrator's speech, and to a lesser extent, in the

dialogue of other characters. Quotations from the

Holy Qur'an in al-Hariri's maqamats, whether they are

direct quotations, paraphrases of the Qur'anic verses,

or references to Qur'anic images, were utilised to

justify various actions of the main character of the

maqamats, Abu Zayd. His oration before the people

serves as the conclusive evidence of his discourse; it

reinforces the author's viewpoint, expressed through

the language of the main character or narrator, and

also assists in fully revealing the signs, qualities,

characters, and essence of the main protagonists.

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