Establishment of the Khorezm People's Soviet Republic:
Contemporary Attitudes Towards the Political Situation in the
Country
Navruzbek Rakhimov
Tashkent State University of Uzbek Language and Literature named after Alisher Navoi, Tashkent, Uznekistan
Keywords: Khorezm People's Soviet Republic (KPSR), Bukhara People's Soviet Republic (BPSR), Turkestan Autonomous
Soviet Socialist Republic (TASSR), Karakalpakstan Autonomous Province (Karakalpakstan AP), “Young
Khiva residents”, “Memories”.
Abstract: It is worth analysing the memories and diaries of contemporaries to reveal the essence of the political, socio-
economic, and cultural processes in the Khorezm People's Soviet Republic. Indeed, through these materials,
one can observe the mood of the individuals of the time and their attitudes towards new processes. The study
of memoirs from those involved in these processes, juxtaposed with the literature created in subsequent periods
and the research conducted, plays a crucial role in wholly reflecting the history of that period. Such memoirs
provide invaluable information about the role and position of national leaders in establishing the Khorezm
People's Soviet Republic and its brief operations.
1 INTRODUCTION
According to the history of the Khorezm People's
Soviet Republic (KRPS), the sources from 1920-1924
can be categorised into the following three groups:
The first group's sources are memoirs, wherein the
author records the daily happenings around them.
Here, the author's social standing, values, and
profession play a significant role. Indeed, at one point,
the author served as a representative of the Soviet
regime in the country, which understandably had
some influence on their appraisal of the process.
The second group comprises works that reflect the
events that transpired in the KRPS between 1920 and
1924, recorded later. Although these sources were not
generated during this period, they remain valuable
since they were created based on accounts from
people who participated in or witnessed the events.
The third group's sources are the normative legal
documents organised by the government of the KRPS.
These include: the Constitutions of the KRPS,
government meeting minutes, and reports, which
facilitate the analysis of the KRPS's political activity.
It should be noted at this juncture that the resources
belonging to this group are relatively poorly
organised.
*
Corresponding author
2 LITERATURE REVIEW
The Khorezm People's Soviet Republic (KRPS) was
established as a result of the overthrow of the Khanate
by Soviet troops, assisted by the Young Khiva
movement, which was dissatisfied with the existing
system of the Khiva Khanate (Yusupov X.P. (2000)..
Kh. P. Yusupov. B. 24-26). The newly formed local
government was primarily comprised of
representatives of the "Young Khiva people". Upon
the formation of the government, the majority wished
to establish a modern form of government, respecting
the values of the local population and implementing
religious institution reforms while preserving the
traditions of national statehood to some degree.
However, the Bolsheviks, dispatched from the centre,
aimed to eradicate the khanate system entirely and
replace it with a government aligned with their
ideology, devoid of national and religious values.
Almost every day of the young republic's existence,
which spanned nearly five years between 1920 and
1924, was marked by such problems and conflicts,
with solutions, common ground, or compromises
needing to be found.
Literature of the period dedicated to Khorezm's
history paid considerable attention to the provisional
government, the succeeding Council of People's
Supervisors, and the administrative units of the
Khorezm oasis, as well as the relationship between the
local government and the Bolsheviks, personnel
Rakhimov, N.
Establishment of the Khorezm People’s Soviet Republic: Contemporary Attitudes Towards the Political Situation in the Country.
DOI: 10.5220/0012489200003792
Paper published under CC license (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0)
In Proceedings of the 1st Pamir Transboundary Conference for Sustainable Societies (PAMIR 2023), pages 397-402
ISBN: 978-989-758-687-3
Proceedings Copyright © 2024 by SCITEPRESS – Science and Technology Publications, Lda.
397

matters, and management issues. One such source is
Polvonniyaz Haji Yusupov's "Memoirs", written by
hand in Arabic script, which detailed the historical
events in Khorezm, Turkestan, in a unique style, in the
Khorezm dialect of the Uzbek language, in an
incredibly captivating way (Polvonniyoz Hoji
Yusupov. (2000).).
What distinguishes his "Memoirs" from other
historical accounts of that period is that the author,
free from communist ideas and beliefs, provided an
honest assessment of the historical events and
occurrences he experienced, knew about, heard of, or
directly participated in, conveying them truthfully.
For instance, he managed to present each reality, both
its negative and positive aspects.
Perhaps due to Polvonniyaz Haji Yusupov's memoir-
style writing, the book was left untitled and was not
segmented into topics or chapters. The work is mainly
devoted to the democratic activities of the Young
Khiva Party, its efforts to topple the Khan's tyranny,
establish an independent people's republic in
Khorezm, and consolidate it. In the work, the author
made a special mention of the national leaders, giving
an impartial evaluation of their activities. Bobohun
Salimov, who contributed significantly to the
formation of the Meeting and the Board of
Supervisors of the KRPS, the organisation of its
activities, and the issuance of documents based on
Islamic Shari'a, was particularly highlighted.
Polvonniyaz Haji Yusupov comments on this in his
"Memoirs": "The People's Republic was established,
after consulting with Bobohun Eshon, letters were
dispatched to all the fortresses of Khorezm to elect
representatives to the provinces of Turkmenistan,
Kazakh, and Karakalpak" (Yusupov P.H.). After the
people sent to the locales elected the people's
representatives, Bobohun Salimov was chosen as the
chairman of the meeting.
Bobohun Salimov also documented his activities. His
memoirs have not reached us in their entirety.
Polvonniyaz Haji Yusupov, in discussing the
activities of the representatives who travelled to
Moscow from Khorezm, referred to the recollections
of Bobohun Salimov (Yusupov P.H.), quoting in his
memoirs: “Let me keep it secret, the meeting will
decide with the participation of Izmoilov. A
representative is to be sent to Moscow to negotiate an
agreement with the Russian Soviet Republic.
Muzokaradin made Eshon Bobohun the chairman and
decided to send him on a life mission” (Yusupov
P.H.).
During the signing of “friendship”, “economic”, and
“military agreements” between the Russian SFSR and
the KRPS, Lev Mikhailovich, the head of the People's
Commissar of Foreign Affairs of the RSFSR,
summoned Bobohun Salimov and other members of
the delegation to his side and announced that the
bilateral agreements to be signed were more stringent
than the terms of the agreement that subjugated the
people of Khorezm to Tsarist Russia. In such
circumstances, Bobohun Salimov proved himself a
true patriot of his people. “I rejected each proposal
with various arguments” (Yusupov P.H.), wrote
Bobohun Salimov in his memoirs. The agreement
signed on 13 September 1920 served to boost the
reputation of the RSFSR among eastern nations. The
Centre's recognition of Khorezm as independent – a
region previously considered a colony of the Russian
Empire – is deemed a significant breakthrough. In
May-July 1920, the autonomous representative of the
RSFSR in Khorezm, A. Izmailov, travelled to
Moscow on the eve of the signing of the Union Treaty
and met him, as recalled in P. Yusupov's memoirs.
“…it is not necessary to grant them so many rights.
Only in this way were a few representatives of
Khorezm able to demand significant rights and aid”
(Yusupov P.H.).
The memoirs of Polvonniyoz Haji Yusupov and
Bobohun Salimov serve as an important source for
studying relations with the KRPS, BPSR, TASSR,
and other Eastern and Western countries. For instance,
in P. Yusupov's diary, “We record the activities of the
KRPS delegation's trip to Moscow from Baba
Okhun's travelogue” (Yusupov P.H.), the entry
begins.
This section provides information about the post-
revolutionary relations of the KRPS with the BPSR
and TASSR. Bobohun Salimov recounts his
conversation with Lev Mikhailovich Korakhan, head
of the People's Commissar of Foreign Affairs of the
RSFSR: “...he enquires about our relationship with
Bukhara before and after the revolution. Answer:
Before the revolution, our relationship was very
friendly. After the revolution, we have no
relationship. I mentioned that we now regard each
other as enemies” [9].
In Khiva, from 27 to 30 April 1920, the first congress
of representatives of all the Khorezm people was held.
Of the 200 representatives participating in this
congress, 80 were representatives of the Turkmen
population. At the congress, it was announced that the
Republic of Khorezm People's Soviets (RKPS) had
been established on the territory of the Khiva Khanate,
and the Constitution of the People's Soviets Republic,
the state coat of arms, and the flag of the Khiva
Republic were approved [10]. Researchers studying
this period of history note that one of the first
constitutions among the Central Asian republics was
adopted in the KRPS, a significant historical fact for
that era. The Constitution of the KRPS was published
in Uzbek using the Arabic alphabet in Khiva in 1920.
On its cover, it read "The Basic Law of the Republic
of Khorezm Shorars", with the sentence “approved by
the First Congress of People's Representatives of
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Khorezm on April 30, 1920” enclosed in parentheses.
The Council of People's Inspectors is cited as the
publisher of the Constitution, which consists of 14
pages and 37 articles, with a preamble made up of 3
articles [11, 1-14].
In research related to the history of the KRPS, the
naming of the country is both a controversial and
problematic issue. It should be noted that at the First
All-Khorezm Congress of People's Representatives,
which opened in Khiva on 27 April 1920 and
continued until May, it was solemnly announced that
the Khanate of Khiva had been abolished, and the
country's old name, Khorezm, was restored in its
place, being called the People's Soviet Republic of
Khorezm (Boltaev A. (1920)). From 18 to 20 October
1923, at the IV Congress of All-Khorezm Soviets,
considering the changes in the economic, political and
social spheres of the country, it was determined that
“the People's Soviet Republic of Khorezm had entered
its new socialist era”, and the state's official name
became the Khorezm Soviet Socialist Republic
(UzNA, R-80). According to the decision of the 5th
Plenum of the Central Executive Committee of the
KRPS held on 22 November 1924, it was incorporated
into the Uzbekistan SSR with 23 districts.
In the literature devoted to the history of the KRPS
and the Young Khiva people, the name Khorezm
People's Soviet Republic, which was announced at the
First Khorezm Congress on 27 April 1920, is
frequently encountered. It should be mentioned that
almost all the researchers who have studied these
issues have approached the name of this country
differently, often referring to it as the “Khorezm
People's Soviet Republic”, “Khorezm Soviet Socialist
Republic” or “Khorezm Republic”, a practice that
continues to this day (Matkarimov M. (2012)).
The first reason for this is that, although the state's
name was changed to the Khorezm Soviet Socialist
Republic in October 1923, the decisions made at the
IV Congress of All-Khorezm Soviets during its brief
one-year existence remained theoretical and this
change was barely felt in the everyday lives of
ordinary people.
Moreover, the second reason is that several sources
and literature related to the history of the KRPS are in
Russian, and this is due to the fact that the name given
to the new political structure by the centre is translated
as “Khorezmskaya Narodnaya Sovetskaya
Respublika”.
However, in the first Constitution of the KRPS,
written in the old Uzbek script (1920), the name of the
state was recorded as the “Khorezm Soviet Republic”.
This Constitution was published in two languages,
Uzbek and Russian, with the country's name in
Russian as “Xorezmskoy Sovetskoy Respubliki”. In
the Constitutions of the KRPS adopted on 23 May
1921 and 23 July 1922, it is referred to as
“Khorezmskaya Narodnaya Sovetskaya Respublika”.
Additionally, in the Khorezm press of that time, the
state is referred to as the Republic of Khorezm
People's Councils. Specifically, in the 20 and 26
August 1920 issues of the newspaper 'Revolution
Sun', a government publication that began in Khorezm
on 7 March 1920, the phrase "Long live the
educational leaders of the Republic of Khorezm
People's Councils!" (The Sun of Revolution. 1920)
can be found. Furthermore, the acronym of the
republic, K.R.P.S., is printed beneath the newspaper
title on the first page of each weekly issue. Beneath it,
the phrase "Khorazm Central Executive Committee is
also on behalf of the Ishtirakiyun faction committee"
(The Sun of Revolution. 1922,) appears. However,
there are instances where this abbreviation is absent in
some issues of the newspaper in subsequent years
(The Sun of Revolution. 1923,).
A. Boltayev's manuscript "Materials on the history of
Khorezm" also touches upon the issue of the state's
nomenclature: "To those who discarded the former
name of the Khiva Khanate and renamed their country
the Khorezm Republic of People's Councils." The
Russian Soviets took this into account and found it
necessary to rename the Khiva Khanate as the
Republic of Khorezm People's Soviets (Boltaev A.).
Therefore, we encounter sentences written as such,
and this state was colloquially called the Khorezm
Republic of People's Soviets (KRPS) and was
established on 27 April 1920. On 20 October 1923,
the IV Congress of All-Khorezm People's
Representatives decided to transform the Khorazm
Soviet Socialist Republic into the Khorezm Soviet
Socialist Republic.
Based on the aforementioned sources, we deem it
appropriate to retain the name Khorezm Republic of
People's Soviets (KRPS) for the state that existed in
the territory of Khorezm from 1920 to 1924.
Ultimately, these issues are addressed in interviews
and memoirs from individuals who directly
participated or were involved in the processes that
unfolded in Khorezm in the 1920s of the 20th century
(19). These sources are also reflected in the works
based on them. Primarily, it should be noted that these
sources have not been sufficiently analysed in studies
related to the history of the USSR. For instance,
Abdulla Boltayev's manuscript "Materials related to
the history of Khorezm", held in the manuscript fund
of the Institute of Oriental Studies of the Academy of
Sciences of Uzbekistan under the number 9320,
depicts the realities that occurred from 1873 to the end
of the 1920s, when the treaty between the Khiva
Khanate and Tsarist Russia was concluded, based on
accurate documents.
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A. Boltayev's diary mentions the Treaty of Union,
comprising 24 articles, signed between the RSFSR
and the KRPS in Moscow on 13 September 1920. The
treaty is in two languages: Uzbek and Russian, and
they correspond to each other. The signatures of the
signatories to this agreement are also displayed [20].
In his manuscript, A. Boltayev underscores certain
articles of this agreement: Article 1 affirms that the
Republic of Khorezm is an independent state,
according to Article 2, the agreements between the
Khanate of Khiva and the Tsarist government are
annulled, and it is noted that land and water, cities,
factories, and various enterprises were incorporated
into the KRPS [21].
B. Safarov, who was a direct witness to the political
processes in Khorezm and recorded these realities in
1957, addressed the key issues of the Khanate of
Khiva and the KRPS in his work entitled 'History of
Khorezm'. In this work, penned in Uzbek using Arabic
script, an attempt was made to illuminate the political
realities of Khorezm's history between 1864 and 1934.
The 29th chapter of the work is titled 'The
Construction of Khorezm Power', and the subsequent
chapters are devoted to describing the realities that
occurred between 1920 and 1925. In particular, the
work concentrates on matters such as the composition
and changes within the government during this period,
the election of government members, congresses,
conflicts between the members of the initial Shoro
government and the representatives of the subsequent
government, disagreements between the affluent
officials in the government and the Bolsheviks, and
the relations between the KRPS and the Soviet
government [22-27].
Although the work was written considerably later, in
the 1950s, it's worth noting that it was composed
based on the memories of the author and his
contemporaries who were direct witnesses to past
realities in the KRPS, and it also provides information
about the processes of that period.
3 DISCUSSIONS
During this period, an alternate history was
formulated by representatives of the Soviet
government, notably G. Broido. He characterised the
realities of this era as a struggle for land and water
between peasants and nomads, the dictatorship of the
Khiva Khanate, and began to portray it as a long-
standing conflict in the lives of the people of the
Khanate of Khiva. According to him: "Turkmens with
Kamson and Uzbeks with Kopson reluctantly made a
minor contribution to the development of the social
revolution in Khiva and the formation of the People's
Republic." Furthermore, N. Chekalin wrote: "The
Turkmens, who constituted the minority, were under
socio-economic oppression by the authoritarian Khiva
administration, and this was a rebellion of the
Turkmens against the injustice of the khanate."
This interpretation of the social history of the Khiva
Khanate was seemingly the bedrock of the Soviet
government's understanding of Khorezm Mountain,
and it was presented as the primary factor legitimising
the establishment of the Republic of Khorezm
People's Councils.
In essence, the KRPS emerged as a highly complex
political structure. It can succinctly be regarded as a
republic established following the occupation of the
territory of the Khiva Khanate by Soviet military
forces and was favoured by the senior Soviet
government. Conversely, the advent and subsequent
disappearance of the KRPS from the historical stage
remains in history as a product of the socio-political
processes of that era - conflicts between advocates of
the khanate system and republican modernists,
progressives who became divided and ultimately
turned into opponents, and representatives of the
Soviet government. Furthermore, the KRPS can be
viewed as a product of political ideas received from
the West via an unconventional political system for
the region - the Turkish progressives, the Ottoman
state, and Russia. This situation was extensively
discussed in the press of the time, and work was
conducted on several national demarcation projects.
Only those at the helm of the operation, and the
implementers, as in other cases, were representatives
of the Central Government in Moscow and its local
branches. The Bolsheviks, who planned the
disintegration of Turkestan and the establishment of
new republics in its stead, began to determine the fate
of other republics in Tashkent. At that time, one of the
official publications of the Turkestan Autonomous
Soviet Socialist Republic (also known as the Republic
of Turkestan Autonomous Councils or the Republic of
Turkestan) was issued by O. Karkin in the July 28-29,
1924 issues 316-317 of the Turkestan newspaper. It
featured a project of the RCP (Communist Party of
Russia) titled "Principles for Lectors". In this project,
there is an extensive discussion concerning the
establishment of new republics, and below we will
restrict ourselves to quoting some articles related to
the KRPS: Turkmen and Uzbek resistance in
Khorezm and Bukhara was a result of the inequality
of these peoples in land and water affairs and therefore
continues. The newly settled Turkmens found
themselves in unirrigated and often saline lands. As
for the better lands, they were occupied by the
Uzbeks, who have been residents since time
immemorial. The tyranny of the Tsarist regime and
Khan Amir assisted the nomadic and semi-nomadic
population to be oppressed by the somewhat advanced
Uzbek trading capital.
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By publicising such projects in the press, the aim was
to portray the numerous Turkmen, Kazakh and
Karakalpak peoples residing in the KRSP as
communities who had been landless and oppressed for
years, and concurrently, to promote the notion that
demarcation from the nation's perspective is the
correct policy.
In O. Karkin's article, several priority tasks linked to
the administrative reforms intended for
implementation in the KRPS were outlined, including:
the detachment of Turkestan, Bukhara and the
Turkmen parts of Khorezm to establish an
independent Turkmen republic; the separation of the
Turkmens whilst maintaining the Republic of
Khorezm in its current state; and decision-making
regarding how the Turkmens will split from Khorezm,
especially when delineating the borders of the newly
formed republics. The Central Asian branch
organisation (the Central Asian Bureau of the RKF
Central Committee), along with Uzbekistan,
Turkmenistan, and autonomous Tajik and Kara-
Kyrgyz regions, and the organisation of the Republic
of Khorezm, should be preserved in a unified form. In
order to highlight these events, they should be called
upon at the All-Bukhara and Khorezm congresses in
September.
This newspaper article was designed to provoke
disagreements and conflicts between the Uzbek and
Turkmen, Uzbek and Kazakh peoples within the
KRPS. This manoeuvre had unintended consequences
for the KRPS. Representatives of various ethnic
groups who had lived in the Khorezm oasis for
centuries were divided into the newly formed national
republics: Uzbekistan SSR, Turkmenistan SSR and
Karakalpakstan AS. In the subsequent years,
economic life and the growth of the national economy
in these regions would be noticeable. However,
cultural values were harmed by the division into
newly established national republics. It should be
mentioned here that despite the efforts of the Central
government, a number of local figures who
established the Uzbekistan SSR under the foundations
of the Turkestan ASSR, the KRPS and the BPSR,
particularly political figures of Uzbek nationality,
government representatives and intellectuals, held
firm in their stance on this issue and initiated the
process of new statehood. When the representatives of
the local government operating in Tashkent, the centre
of the Turkestan ASSR, became aware of the
Bolsheviks' plan in the Centre to partition the KRPS,
they immediately took action, dispatched their
representatives and intellectuals to this young
republic, consulted with the representatives of the
local government in Khiva, and commenced
propaganda work among the local population on this
matter.
The Bolshevik government became the main
implementers in this matter as well. Despite
proclaiming that each nation determines its own
destiny and on paper, it executed the division of the
KRPS into new republics based on orders from the
Centre. This is substantiated by the following lines
from the memoirs of P. Yusupov: "Let's not keep it a
secret, these national divisions are easily decided in
Moscow. At the 5th congress, without a word, they
simply confirmed the assignment from Moscow and
dissolved the congress... It was decided to divide the
property into 50% for the Uzbeks, 50% for the
Turkmen, Kazakhs and Karakalpaks."
Evidence related to political changes presented in
such memoirs refuted conclusions such as some
independent activity in management, reciprocal equal
relations between the KRPS, a warm attitude of the
local population to the national territorial
demarcation, published in the press of the time and
presented in later studies, because the authors of these
memoirs and diaries attempted to provide an impartial
assessment of the political processes that they had
directly witnessed. As a result, they were dismissed
from their positions by the Soviet government and
were constantly harassed and persecuted.
4 CONCLUSION
Upon examining the aforementioned sources, it was
determined that the government of the KRPS
encountered two significant challenges. The first
involved changing the administrative traditions that
had existed during the era of the former Khiva
Khanate and instituting a new system in lieu of the
administrative, judicial, and bureaucratic structures. It
is crucial to comprehend and contrast the range of
perspectives in these primary sources when assessing
their causes and effects.
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