Political and Legal Views of the Jadids of Turkestan

Abdurahim Mannonov

, Rustam Sharipov

, Nargiza Ismatullayeva

Mohira Umarova

and Kamola Rasulova

Tashkent State University of Oriental Studies, Tashkent, Uzbekistan

Keywords: Jadid, Jadid Movement, Jadidism, Modernism, Turkestan, National Liberation Movement, “Tarjimon”

Newspaper.

Abstract: This article is devoted to political and legal views of the jadids in the Turkestan region. The 20th century is

of particular significance to the historical progression of humanity. This century witnessed so many global

events that their significance transcends multiple centuries. If we view the events of the 20th century through

the lens of today’s ideology of independence, the century began with the national liberation movements of

the people of Turkestan, and the great objective of this movement was achieved in the last decade of the

century, with the collapse of the Shura autocratic system and the dissolution of the Red Empire.

1 INTRODUCTION

Jadids’ works are primarily analysed as national

liberation movements in world literature. In the late

19th and early 20th centuries, the tsarist authorities

responded to Jadidism and its prominent

representatives, and during the Soviet era, they were

evaluated and interpreted as individuals who acted

against the people's best interests. Simultaneously, a

significant portion of the literary, scientific, and

pedagogical legacy left by modern authors was

obliterated. Consequently, generations have been

unable to study the impartial actions of modern

enlighteners for a considerable amount of time.

Without knowledge of or study of history, it is

impossible to consider the future and take a brave step

forward. A nation that is aware of its history can

prevent future errors and also functions as an example

in the struggle for independence. As the President of

Uzbekistan correctly pointed out, “Our jaded great-

grandfathers devoted their whole lives to the idea of

national revival, mobilized all their strength and

capabilities to take the country out of ignorance and

backwardness, to save our nation from the mire of

ignorance.” In this manner, they also gave up their

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lives. They regarded as fundamental the hadith sharif

that “There is no salvation without knowledge and

there is no salvation”.

Due to the fact that the most prominent

representatives of the Jadidism movement were also

prominent artists of their time, the social, political,

and economic conditions that emerged in Turkestan

at the turn of the 20th century were vividly expressed

in their works. Modern literature can be said to reflect

the most prevalent issues of the time. In the works of

Jadid authors, the human rights of citizens, freedom

of expression, family culture, educational reform, the

future of Turkestan as an autonomy, the political

structures of the future state, and other crucial aspects

of constructing a democratic society receive special

consideration. The investigation of these concepts

and their artistic development, as advanced by Jadid

authors in their works, is one of the most pressing

issues of the present day.

Since the late 1980s of the previous century, the

history of the origin and formation of the modernist

movement and literature, as well as the contemporary

significance of these movements and literature, have

been consistently studied. After Uzbekistan became

an independent state, this process became more

1342

Mannonov, A., Sharipov, R., Ismatullayeva, N., Umarova, M. and Rasulova, K.

Political and Legal Views of the Jadids of Turkestan.

DOI: 10.5220/0012966700003882

Paper published under CC license (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0)

In Proceedings of the 2nd Pamir Transboundary Conference for Sustainable Societies (PAMIR-2 2023), pages 1342-1352

ISBN: 978-989-758-723-8

consistent and assumed the form of a scientifically

objective approach. It can be said that academician

I.Mominov’s research “On the nature of the ruling

ideology in Uzbekistan from the end of the eleventh

century to the beginning of the twentieth century”

(Mominov, 1960) provided a significant impetus for

the start of this process.

A number of researchers, including

O.Sharafiddinov (1994), N.Karimov (2004),

B.Nazarov, B.Kasimov (2002), E.Karimov (1975),

H.Boltaboev (1996), B.Dostkoraev, Sh.Turdiev,

A.Aliev, S.Ahmedov, U.Dolimov, A.Jalolov,

Sh.Rizaev, B.Karimov, D.Kuronov (1995), K.Juraev

(2000), D.Alimova, R.Shamsuddinov, S.Kholboev,

K.Rajabov with the publication of these books and

pamphlets, it became even more apparent that

Jadidism is an ocean-wide phenomenon.

2 THE MAIN RESULTS AND

FINDINGS

On the initiative of our head of state, a conference

devoted to the study of the Jadids’ heritage was

conducted in our nation from March 6 to 9, 2023. In

the greeting of President of the Republic of

Uzbekistan Shavkat Mirziyoyev, the participants of

the conference were shown the essence of the

historical phenomenon known as Jadidism and the

need for a deeper understanding of it: “Jadids, who

are advanced representatives of their time,

disseminated knowledge and enlightenment in

extremely complex and difficult conditions, and

fundamentally reformed the field of education and

training. The individual entered the profession with

the intention of achieving moderate national

development. In order to realize the sacred aspirations

of our enlightened ancestors, we have tasked

ourselves with establishing a new Renaissance

foundation in our country. We are implementing

fundamental reforms in science, education, and

culture for this purpose. We deem it imperative to

investigate the activities of contemporary scientists in

collaboration with international scientific centres and

global scientists. Through this unique heritage, we

can discover the correct answers to a number of

queries that currently concern humanity. The more

vigorously we promote this inestimable asset, the

more our people, particularly our young, will

recognize the value of today’s peaceful and free life.”

During the years of independence, the study of the

history of Jadidism and the literary and social heritage

of Jadids entered a new phase. As one of the results

of this stage, O.Sharafiddinov’s “Understanding

Cholpon” (1994), “Istiklol Fidoyilari” (1993),

B.Kasimov’s “National Awakening: Courage,

Enlightenment, Sacrifice” (2002), “National

Awakening” (2003), N.Karimov’s educational novel

“Cholpon” (2004), “Landscapes of XX Century

Literature” (2008), “Three Great Figures” (2019),

H.Boltaboev’s “Scientific Heritage of Nature” (1996),

“Suppressed Science” (1996 ), Sh.Rizaev’s “Jadid

drama” (1997), D.Kuronov’s “Cholpon’s life and

creative heritage” (1997), “Jadidism and the

formation of new Uzbek literature” (1999),

R.Sayfullaeva’s “Principles of national development

in the works of Uzbek jadids / The principles of

national development in the works of Uzbek jadids”

(Indonesia, 2023), as well as the textbook “Uzbek

literature of the period of national independence”

compiled by a team of authors, “Sacrifices of the

Motherland” by the Republican Spirituality and

Enlightenment Center (Abdurauf Fitrat, Mahmudhoja

Behbudi, Abdulla Avloni, Mahmud Hodiev Botu,

Ishaqkhan Ibrat, 2020-2021), “Heroes of

Independence” (Abdurauf Fitrat, Mahmudhoja

Behbudi, Haji Muin, Ishaqkhan Ibrat, Said Ahrari,

Mahmud Hodiev Botu, Vadud Mahmud, 2020-

2021. ) The works of contemporary authors chosen by

the Youth Affairs Agency for the column “Jadids”

(Abdulhamid Cholpon, Abdulla Avloni, Abdulla

Kadiri, Abdurauf Fitrat, Ishaqkhan Ibrat,

Mahmudhoja Behbudi, Munavvar Kori

Abdurashiskhanov, Ghulom Zafari, 2022) should be

noted separately.

Foreign scientists’ interest in modern literature

began in the 1920s of the previous centuries. Initially

in Turkey and Germany, and subsequently in the

United States, scientists translated the works of the

ancients into their native tongues, published them in

the press, and developed diverse interpretations.

During the Shura period, these interpretations were

evaluated based on an ideological approach in Uzbek

literary studies. During the period of independence,

however, they came to have their own impartial

interpretations.

Several research centres and institutions of higher

education are conducting research on the issues of

modern literature in the globe. Including the

universities of Columbia, Michigan, Chicago, and

California in the United States, Tokyo University of

Foreign Studies in Japan, Russian Academy of

Sciences, Islamic Institute of Russia, Kazan Federal

University, Ankara, Eje, and Istanbul Universities in

Turkey, Institute of Manuscripts of the Azerbaijan

Academy of Sciences, Baku State University, Eurasia

National university in Kazakhstan, and Institute of

Political and Legal Views of the Jadids of Turkestan

1343

Manuscripts of the Azerbaijan Academy of Sciences,

Baku State University in Azerbaijan, National

University and the Academy of Sciences of

Turkmenistan prestigious centers of science, such as

the, the legacy of our grandfathers is being studied.

Turkish scholars Tahir Chigatoy’s “Turkism and

Folkism in Turkistan,” Boymirza Hayit’s “Turkish

Poets killed in Turkistan,” Mehmet Sarai’s

“Educational Reform in the Turkic World and

Gaspirali Ismailbey,” and Temur Khojaoglu’s

“Review of General Ideological Changes of Turkish

Literature in Turkistan,” all published in the journal

“Yeni Turkistan,” and the study “Cholpon’s Poems”

by Husayn Ozboy made a substantial contribution to

the study of contemporary literature (Kuronov, 1997).

In addition, the ideas of the American scientists

E.Alworth, A.Beningson, E.Wimbush,

D.Montgomery (Mirzaeva, 2011), and the German

researcher Ingeborg Baldauf regarding the

personalities of the figures in modern literature, as

well as the analysis and interpretation of their works,

made a significant contribution to the advancement of

world jadid studies.

Histories have their own principles. Throughout

its history, every society undergoes the processes of

birth, growth, peak, and gradual decline. The history

of the Uzbek people consists of the unification of

various tribes and clans into one khanate, and the

khanates into khanates, these khanates living in

specific historical conditions and eras, then enduring

the agony of conquest, and, finally, achieving

freedom and independence. These historical events

have manifested in different forms throughout our

nation’s history. There is a connection between the

demise of socioeconomic thought and the emergence

of a new thought. In the second half of the 19th

century, the competition among Europe’s most potent

nations led to the establishment of a common rule

over Turkestan. The British did not conceal their keen

interest in Afghanistan and South Turkestan, and they

reached the Pamirs in 1839. In this year, while they

were occupied with the southern borders of Turkestan,

Russia was actively attempting to capture Khiva.

However, the Russian tsar’s six thousand soldiers

under the command of General Perovsky were

unsuccessful. Then, movement toward Kokan

commences. Although the Kokand Khanate’s

Akmasjid fortress near Sirdarya was captured in 1853,

the rapid penetration of Russian troops into the

interior of Turkestan was momentarily halted.

Following the signing of the Treaty of Paris in

1856, Russia dispatched its demobilized troops to the

Caucasus and Turkestan. In 1858, General Ignatev

(later Russian ambassador in Istanbul) was

dispatched as an ambassador to Bukhara, where he

organized his activities around exerting pressure on

the emir of Bukhara. General Kolpakovsky, who

launched operations from Ettisuv in 1860, defeated

the Kokand Khanate’s forces. By occupying the

fortresses of Tokmoq and Pishpek, he gained control

of the highways leading to Eastern Turkestan. Russia

continued its military operations against the Kokand

Khanate in 1864, capturing the strongholds of Avliyo

ota, Turkestan (Yassi), and Shymkent. The following

day, on May 2, 1868, General Kaufman led 3,500

soldiers into Samarkand, one of the oldest settlements

in Turkestan. The Khanates of Bukhara and Kokand

will come under Russia’s protection. The Khanate of

Khiva was also compelled to accept this protection on

August 12, 1873. The “Governorship of Turkestan”

replaced the Khanate of Kokand on February 19,

1876. From 1880 to 1884, the present-day

Turkmenistan was also occupied. Citizens of the

occupying nation were relocated to the occupied

territory, and numerous Russian communities were

established. As a consequence, the “closed social

system” described by Vambery assumed a new form

and simultaneously became a colony of Tsarist Russia.

The nearly forty-year colonial period, which

endured until the start of the twentieth century, left no

mark on the economic, social, or cultural life of the

people. During the colonial period, the already

subjugated population, which had endured a difficult

economic existence during the Khanate and Emirate

periods and whose social consciousness and cultural

level evoked only regret, was subjected to further

oppression. This circumstance not only hindered the

population’s cultural and social development but also

their daily lives. The tsarist government devised a

number of political measures to continue the

colonialism carried out by the Russian occupation.

Among them, one of the political measures that was

inherited by the Soviet government and continued at

a relatively rapid pace almost from the beginning to

the end of the Russian occupation was Russification,

which, first of all, in the 1870s, moved many people

from Russia, including muzhiks, to Central Asia, to

them 55% of the irrigated, fertile land will be taken

away from the local people, and the local authorities

will be replaced by Russians. Ultimately, this caused

the oppression of the people to worsen.

Consider that 200 Russian farms were relocated to

Mingtepa in 1899 due to the Andijan uprising, and

that Mingtepa, which has a three-thousand-year

history, was renamed “Russian farm” and an

Orthodox church was constructed there first. The

market for small craftsmen, such as carpenters, was

destroyed as the Russian manufacturing industry

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progressively flooded the marketplace. There are

sufficient examples of this in “Statement of an Indian

Tourist” by Fitrat (2000, p. 78). The unemployment

rate soared. Villagers, in particular, became indigent

and were forced to migrate to the city to work as

labourers, while many peasants were compelled to

work for Russian peasants. The policy of

Russification targeted not only the migratory nature

but also the spiritual world of the people and the

destruction of the finest national values.

N.I.Ilminsky, who devised numerous methods

and means of Russification, was one of the theorists

of this policy. One of them is paving the way for the

activities of institutions using the Russian system. In

1894, the first of these institutions was established; by

1915, there were ninety. Professor Nikolay Ilminsky

(1822-1891) taught Turkish dialects and theology at

Kazan University and was one of Ismailbek

Gaspraly’s most ardent opponents. According to the

professor, the only way to “Russify” the people living

under Russian rule was to establish schools in these

regions, teach students the Russian language and

culture, and promote Orthodox Christianity.

Members of the Russian government, such as the

then-education inspector D.A.Tolstoy, who were

familiarized with these concepts in depth are

confident that the “Method of Russification of Non-

Russians” would yield positive results and provide a

broad path for its implementation. After capturing the

Khanates of Kazan and Astrakhan, Tsarist Russia

proceeded to eradicate the local population’s

language, religion, history, national traditions, and

culture from their consciousness and way of life

(2000). Following the coup of 1917, this process

attained a new level. A full-fledged mechanism

started searching for new ways to neglect and

dehumanize national identity. The previously-

mentioned Nikolai Ivanovich Ilminsky was one of the

policy’s architects in Tsarist Russia.

Nikolai Ivanovich Ilminsky published works such

as “Boburnoma” and “Qissas ul-Anbiyo” and

conducted numerous studies on Turkic languages. His

views on the russification of other nations, the

violation of their legal foundations, and the

Christianization of Muslims are more essential to the

occupying Russian government than his actions.

Ilminsky believes that the only way to Russify non-

Russians who resided under Russian rule is to teach

them Russian and Christianity. When he taught at the

Kazan Religious Academy and Kazan University and

was the director of the Kazan Teacher’s Seminary, he

attempted to introduce these principles to the public.

Simultaneously, the concept of “Ilminsky style of

Russification” emerged, and classes were taught

using this framework.

In order to conquer the peoples of Turkestan, the

Russian authorities followed the above-mentioned

scientist’s advice and adopted his religion and

language. Progressive intellectuals of the nation, well

aware of the repercussions of such a “language

policy”, launched a serious campaign against it. At a

time when the autonomous existence of Turkic

languages on the territory of the Russian Empire was

threatened, Ismoilbek Gasprali published his slogan

“Fight for linguistic unity!” in the Boqchasaray

edition of “Tarjiman” (“Translator”) newspaper

(December 12, 1883). It is evident in the works and

practical activities of modern literature

representatives such as Mahmudhoja Behbudi,

Munavvar Qori, and Abdurauf Fitrat that they are

fighting for the primacy of the mother tongue.

After Russian authorities realized that the

conditions for Russian to become the official state

language in the territories they had conquered were

still lacking, they attempted to discredit and eradicate

the local language. N.Ostroumov proposed

advocating the amorphous “Sart language” as an

official tongue. In response, Mahmudhoja Behbudi

wrote in the article “Turkistan Office” that “the

majority of Turkestan’s Muslim population speaks

Turkish. In the southern districts, there are

approximately 100,000 Persians. Nonetheless, they

are also proficient in Turkish. Turkestans vary in

physical appearance, religion, and language. There is

no distinction. On their own terms, city inhabitants

are referred to as Sarts, while villagers may be

nomads, Kyrgyz, or Kazakhs. As for religion,

customs, and etiquette, we hardly differentiate

between them by writing “one hundred thousand””

(Shoro, 1908, Issue 32, p. 720). This indicates that the

local dialect word “sart” cannot be recognized as an

official language symbol. As a practical

demonstration of these words, dozens of publications

bearing the name Jadid Press fought for the Turkish

language to be the vernacular of the press and the state.

Religion was one of the primary points of

N.Ilminsky’s presentation. “It is essential to intervene

progressively in the faith and beliefs of the populace.

So that they progressively learn to think in a Christian

and Russian manner, such conclusions should be

sought from them. Only then will they unite not only

in language, but also in thought and faith with the

Russian people,” (1869, p. 26) he wrote. N.Ilminsky,

one of the leaders of the religious seminary in Kazan,

devotedly studied the “Holy Qur'an” and advocated

that the Russian people use it for a variety of spiritual

matters.

Political and Legal Views of the Jadids of Turkestan

1345

The majority of Jadids were devout Muslims who

read the Quran and observed the Sunnah of our

Prophet. Despite the fact that “old-timers” labeled

Jadids as infidels and barred them from certain

mosques and madrassas, the leaders of the Jadid

movement were devout believers. The facts that

Mahmudhoja Behbudi was the mufti of the city of

Samarkand, that “Tashkent Shoroyi Islamiya” was

directed by Munavvar Qari Abdurashidkhanov

(Akhmad, 2003), that he was described as Haji

Abdurauf in the first sources of Fitrat’s life, that he

taught at the “Voizon” madrasa in Istanbul, and that

he was the author of “Summary History of Islam”

(Boltaboev, 2000). There are many such arguments

available. Sources of the Jadid movement not only in

Turkestan and Bukhara, but also abroad, emphasize

that the Jadids, who followed the path of reform in

every discipline, were religious reform advocates

despite being “Islamists” At the end of the eleventh

century and the beginning of the twentieth century,

Muslim Asia as a whole came to support such reforms.

Such religious reform initiatives were led by

Shahabuddin Marjani and Abdurashid Ibrahimbek in

Kazan, Jamaluddin Afghani and his ardent disciple

Muhammad Abduh in Egypt, and Mahmud Tarzi,

who lived in Turkey for many years and attempted to

restore the ancient order in Afghanistan.

It is not a secret to historians that in 1910, the

Russian authorities, who used internal discord as a

weapon in every issue, sowed discord between Sunnis

and Shiites in Bukhara, resulting in the deaths of

thousands of innocent believers. Regarding the

renewal of the school and madrasa system, the present

Arabic script and its reformation, and, later, the

transition to the Latin script, the Jadids had numerous

disagreements. It is natural, obviously. As much as it

continued during the colonial period, it continued

with such success during the Soviet period

(particularly after 1929) that prominent

representatives of the Jadidism movement were

drawn to Dahri, portraying them as unbelievers. It is

no secret that some of the ancient authors were

responsible for this. This can be confirmed by reading

the artistic and journalistic works published in the

1928-launched “Khudosizlar” magazine, which

aimed to disseminate genius. Several Uzbek authors,

including Fitrat, Qadiri, and Cholpon, have been

accused of duplicity by publications published by

Turkestans living abroad, such as “Yosh Turkistan”

magazine.

The Jadids’ attitude toward religion has always

been one of the most contentious issues. Initially, in

order to publish Fitrat’s “Qiyamat” during the Shura

era, the work was given an atheistic tint, and it was

published multiple times in Russian in the “Library of

atheist” series of the “Pravda” publishing house in the

translation of L.I.Klimovich. Some Uzbek scholars

(A.Aliev, B.Dostkoraev) emphasized that he was a

prodigy and wished to restore his work during the

Soviet era by highlighting such writings. Regardless

of how the event occurred or was interpreted,

Islamism emerged in the early years of the movement

as a branch of Jadidism.

Today, it is common knowledge that education

was a matter of life and death for the Jadids during

both the colonial era and the Shura atrocities.

D.A.Tolstoy, a Russian education inspector,

examined the educational system of schools taught in

the Ilminsky style and ultimately concluded that it

must be implemented in the countries inhabited by

Turkic peoples, including Turkestan. In a letter to

Alexander II, he wrote, “I recognize that educating

non-Russian peoples in literacy and instilling the

Russian spirit in them is crucial from the standpoint

of our state’s policy.” (Khudoyberdiev, 1998)

Other proposals regarding Russification in the

education of children of other nationalities were

outlined in the letter. In 1870, the tsarist government,

which sanctioned Ilminsky’s methods, resolved to

implement them in the education of non-Russian

nationalities. According to a set of orders issued by

the Ministry of Education in the same year, “the

ultimate purpose of the education of all foreign

peoples must be to Russify and assimilate them into

the Russian people.”

The decision of a conference held on August 30,

1882 at the teacher’s seminary in Tashkent, led by

N.Ostroumov, confirms the aforementioned objective

of the Russian-system schools opened in Turkestan at

the close of the nineteenth century. It addressed the

question, “What principles should determine the basis

for the education of non-Russian Muslims?” And the

primary objective of the country’s education system

was defined as “violating Islam,” or “violating the

religious aspects of Muslimism that are foreign to us.”

(Khudoyberdiev, 1998)

The old-style schools advocated by “ancientists”

did not pose a significant challenge to the tsarist

authorities, who began to introduce Ilminsky schools

in Turkestan. For them, the new “Usuli Jadid”

institutions represented a grave threat. According to

Ilminsky, “if the developing and reforming Muslim

uses the technical opportunities created by Western

culture and simultaneously mobilizes its strength to

open modern schools, it will enter a new historical

phase and pose a grave threat to Orthodoxy.”

Therefore, Gasprali’s modernism requires us to swim

against the current. By allowing the establishment of

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modern institutions, the Russian government and

intellectuals are chopping off the branch they are

sitting on (Ilminsky, 1869, p. 26).

The issue of taxes in economic life is one of the

subsequent problems brought about by colonialism.

Unfortunately, until now, neither historians nor

representatives of other disciplines have addressed

the deterioration of the people’s economic conditions

as a result of the taxes collected during the colonial

period, or they have ignored this crucial aspect of the

issue. Nonetheless, the impoverishment of the

populace, the rise of the peasantry, labor, and the

sending of children to kindergartens and females to

convents were the primary results of this poverty.

Prior to the fall of the Kokand Khanate, substantial

taxes were paid to Russia, but not at the expense of

the treasury, but rather at the expense of the common

people. When both khanates became colonies and the

Bukhara Emirate lived in semi-vassal status, Russia

directly collected taxes from the inhabitants of the

former two khanates and devised a new tax system;

the Bukhara Emirate also collected the tax it owed to

Russia from the people.

The local populace can also be humiliated by

trampling their national values, ignoring their history,

and violating their religious beliefs. We know from

the film “Before Dawn” by the first Uzbek film

director Sulaiman Khojaev and the short story

“Tomoshabog” by Abdulla Qahhor that locals were

not included in the construction of culture and

recreation parks in Tashkent and other cities. They

were denied access to the governor’s gala and other

official events. A sign reading “Сартам и собакам

вход запрещается” (“Sarts and dogs are not

allowed”) was displayed in front of the former tsar’s

auditorium in the heart of Tashkent.

In some other sources, it is stated that the tsar’s

bailiffs entered mosques with canines to demonstrate

that they had unlimited rights. According to such

sources, it is prohibited for locals to wear national

dress on the main streets of Tashkent, and special

seats without seats have been installed in carriages to

prevent them from sitting next to Russians.

The Russian government pursued an imperialist

and Russification-based policy. In an instruction

issued by the Russian Ministry of Public Education in

1870, it was specified that “Russification of

indigenous peoples should be the primary objective

of education.” “That’s why the Russian government

deliberately hindered the development of the national

language and national culture as much as possible,

and did not even think of allocating funds for the

maintenance of schools and madrasahs.” (Ziyoyev,

1998)

Such varied forms of oppression could not satisfy

the people’s capacity for tolerance. After one another,

large and minor revolts began to arise. The first of

these uprisings occurred in the Syrdarya region in

1856, when Central Asia had not yet been entirely

conquered. In 1864 and 1869, the Dungans rose up in

Yettisuv and Samarkand, respectively. It can be said

that such uprisings were interconnected and were

ruthlessly suppressed by the regular Russian army.

Following the instigation of each revolt, its active

participants were either executed or exiled to Siberia.

According to “Russian Disabled” magazine (1898,

Issue 127), after the suppression of the Dukchi Eshan

uprising, 777 participants were arrested and only 32

were acquitted. 380 individuals were given death

sentences. One offender was sentenced to life in

prison, while three others were sent to a training camp.

According to “Russian Disabled” magazine, a portion

of these individuals were favored by the White Tsar.

However, he did not mention how many people were

beaten and tortured to death during the investigation,

nor did he mention that the indigenous populations of

the Kutchi, Tajik, and Kashgar villages were

relocated by order of the Russian administration and

the court's verdict, and their former homes were

converted into kultepa. In addition, the Russian

administration has proposed razing 29 rebel-

supporting villages between Mingtepa and Andijan

city. With the “blessing” of the tsarist authorities,

however, this number was reduced, and the ashes of

five villages containing "only" 700 dwellings were

dispersed. On June 12, 1898, the city and rural

residents were forcibly transported to the punishment

area so that the hanging of the rebels headed by

Dukchi Eshon would serve as a lesson for the

colony’s inhabitants. On this day, condemned rebels

were hanged in front of their comrades and their

corpses were mutilated. Officials of the Tsar also

brought young children so that they would forever

remember this spectacle (Fozilbek, 1927). People

living in such a situation might have become more

mute, but it gradually dawned on them that they

needed to go to the battlefield to break the constraints

of oppression and defend their rights.

Since antiquity, religious figures have had a

significant impact on human existence. It is not a

mystery that the people’s recognized leaders were

religious leaders. People believed in them and

frequently fought against their orders. The role of

religious figures in the historical and social conditions

of the late 19th and early 20th centuries has been the

subject of not only specialized studies, but also

newspaper articles.

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1347

In 1877, General Skobelev, the governor-general

of the Fergana region, wrote to Kaufman, “Among

the locals, there are many of our enemies, including

officials of the khan and clerics in particular. After

our arrival, they not only lost their previous positions,

but also the opportunities necessary for a prosperous

existence. They are able to mobilize the people

against the Russians in order to restore the previous

order because they have a deep understanding of their

society’s character and its weaknesses.”

Between 1877, when General Skobelev wrote the

letter, and the final years of the 19th century, there

was a significant difference. A compromise was

reached between the clergy and the tsarist authorities

at this time, when mosques and madrassas were under

the jurisdiction of the Russian administration.

Initially, the religious leaders who saw the Russians

as infidels gradually explained that the religious

beliefs of the people should not be trampled on. They

also realized that it was impossible to make a mistake

in such a delicate matter. Furthermore, with the help

of Sharia leaders, they kept the people in silence and

fought against any innovation. In order to continue

the colonial policy, the tsarist authorities viewed the

religious leaders of the people as their allies, albeit

temporarily. In this regard, it is necessary to recall the

situation in Bukhara during the first decade of the

twentieth century. Not only Qushbegi and ministers,

but also the emir himself, were granted permission to

participate in all political events by the Russian

representative. The work “Amir Olimkhan and the

Period of His Rule” by Fitrat demonstrates how even

a small event conducted without permission was

banned and the emir was discredited in the eyes of his

peers as a result (Fitrat, 1992).

Turkestan, weary of its struggles, attained the

threshold of the 20th century amidst such

complication. Now the seeds of the movement known

as “Jadidism” began to be sown on this holy ground,

and history anxiously awaited its enlightened

offspring to implement radical changes.

Obviously, the Jadidist movement in

Turkmenistan did not arise by itself. There were

objective conditions and causes that led to its

emergence. Between the middle of the 19th century

and the beginning of the 20th century, societal

renewal was required. Several social, political, legal,

and moral issues emerged. “jadids” was the common

term for the group of intellectuals who attempted to

solve them. This word’s dictionary and

terminological definitions were explained by the

professor. According to B.Kasimov, “Jadid” implies

“new.” It does not imply that it is merely novel or

“promotes the novel.” Perhaps it has a variety of

meanings, such as “new thinking”, “new person”, and

“new generation” (Kosimov, 2002, p. 5). The breadth

of the word’s meaning demonstrates that Jadidism

cannot be considered solely within the context of the

educational or sociopolitical movement that occurred

in Turkestan. Perhaps the global political-economic

and cultural-spiritual revivals of the late 19th and

early 20th centuries are related to a global

phenomenon that entered American history under the

name “modernism”. It is not remarkable that the

renewals, reforms, and reconstructions in England in

1868, France in 1871, and Germany in the 1970s and

1980s of the nineteenth century were also the impetus

for Turkestan moderns’ efforts toward innovation. It

is no secret that after the aforementioned dates,

national literatures were dubbed “new French

literature” and “new English literature” in the field of

literature alone. Even theoretical works concede that

Russia’s “new literature” began in the late nineteenth

century.

In the lengthy history of human society, numerous

movements, doctrines, and political currents have

emerged. The desire to create a just, humane society

based on the equality of citizens, to eliminate

oppression and violence, slavery and tyranny,

inequality and ignorance, rests at the heart of these

movements. According to B.Dostkarev, “the fight for

freedom is the key to overcoming national

oppression.” “In order to attain freedom and

independence, man must rid himself of feudal

backwardness and ignorance. Daqqi entered the

battlefield as a “jadid” (new) force in opposition to

the “old” forces, because a fundamental reform of the

extant system in society is required for this to occur.

Jadids consequently arose as a political movement in

Egypt, Turkey, and Turkestan. True, their formation

and development levels were not identical. Even in

lands occupied by Tsarist Russia, national liberation

movements brought the Jadids to the forefront of

history by the end of the 19th century. People and

peoples who were oppressed by national tyranny

could only escape the grasp of the potent empire if

they worked together. In order to accomplish this, it

was necessary to first reawaken national

consciousness and realize the nation’s identity. In

order for a slave to recognize that he is a slave and be

liberated, he had to cultivate the ability to examine his

situation consciously (Dostkoraev, 1998).

The Jadid movement (also known as the “renewal

movement” by foreign scholars) was not an

exclusively Turkestanian phenomenon. By this time,

it had spread throughout the Muslim populations of

Turkey, Idyll-Ural, the Caucasus (Azerbaijan),

Turkestan, and even Russia.

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The Jadid movement arose in the Caucasus and

Azerbaijan during the second part of the 19th century.

Especially in this region, the oil industry grew swiftly,

world-renowned companies such as “Nobel”,

“Rothschild”, and “Siemens” opened their doors, and

Russian investors such as Kokorev, Shibaev, and

Benkendorf began their work. Consequently, new

technologies and other innovations invaded the

region rapidly. As a consequence, 26,637 individuals

out of 1,805,788 Azerbaijanis in 1897 began working

in the oil industry (Nodir, 1985, p. 21).

If the primary economic and cultural conditions

for the renewal process were created in the Caucasus,

particularly in Azerbaijan, the situation in other

regions was somewhat different. For instance,

Kazakhs who were accustomed to a nomadic or semi-

nomadic lifestyle found it more challenging to adapt

to a new educational system. Beginning in the middle

of the nineteenth century, Russian influence began to

be felt in their manner of life. In Khanskaya Stavka,

the first school for Kazakh students was established

in 1841. In 1866, there were eight such institutions.

Unquestionably, the Volga region (Idil-Ural) was

one of the recognized nuclei of the Jadidist movement,

which began in the 1890s. The strong enlightenment

movement that arose in this region, coupled with

reformist aspirations, gave birth to the Jadidism

movement among the Tatars and Bashkirs. Similar to

other regions, Jadidism began with the revision of the

school education system in this area. In the second

half of the 19th century, Husayn Fayzkhanov

(“School reform” program) and Shahabeddin Marjani

(with his practical program for teaching students)

initiated this initiative. However, only a portion of

their innovative concepts were implemented on time.

The ideas of Sh.Marjani assisted the author in

modernizing madrasa education, whereas the second

idea remained on paper only. However, the reform of

the educational system is the primary factor in the

revival of Tatar spiritual and spiritual culture at the

turn of the 20th century. The life-or-death struggle

that began in Tatarstan between the Jadids and the

ancients, on the one hand, resulted in the exodus of

young Tatar intellectuals to Central Asia, particularly

to the territories of modern-day Uzbekistan, and on

the other hand, the Jadids used the press, literature,

and theater to sway the masses of the population to

their side. They assisted them while simultaneously

allowing them to share their innovative concepts.

Through the “Muhammadiya” madrasas in Kazan,

“Aliya” and “Usmaniya” madrasas in Ufa, and

“Husayniya” madrasas in Orenburg, Jadidist ideas

began to proliferate among the masses.

The process of renewal in Russia, Turkestan, the

Caucasus (Azerbaijan), the Idyll-Urals, and the

Crimea took on a near-mass character from the

middle of the nineteenth century to the beginning of

the twentieth. It is impossible not to mention

Ismailbek Gasprali, the most prominent figure of his

period, whose theoretical and practical activities

made an incomparable contribution to the formation

and development of the Jadidist movement.

There were both external and internal factors

involved in the emergence and development of the

Jadidist movement in Turkestan, with Ismailbek

Gasprali's doctrine playing the most significant role.

Ismailbek Gasprali was born in 1851 in the Crimean

village of Gaspra, close to the town of Bokhchasaroy.

After completing his studies in Moscow, he moves to

France and Turkey. Between 1875 and 1881, he

taught in Bokhchasaroy and served as a government

administrator. In an article published in the periodical

"Tavrida" in 1881, he outlined the following practical

plan:

 reforming the national schooling system;

 establishment of “Community Charities” to

support the national educational system

financially;

 organization of the Turkic peoples’ general

national press;

 the empowerment of Muslim women;

 the establishment of conditions conducive to

the development of national experts and

intellectuals (Mehmet, 1987).

At the time, this was regarded as a politically and

legally significant initiative. This initiative is

promoted by Ismoilbek Gasprali in the “Tarjimon”

(“Translator”) newspaper, which was first published

in 1883. In 1884, he founded the first new method

school in Bokhchasaray, putting his theoretical and

legal ideas into practice. Ideas and actions of

Ismailbek Gasprali had a significant impact on

existence. Despite being the first Turkish-language

newspaper to be published in Russia, the “Tarjimon”

(“Translator”) newspaper played a significant role in

the fate of a number of peoples, the development of

the movement of national renewal, the process of the

national liberation movement that resulted from it,

and the formation of modern literature. Due to the fact

that this newspaper, which was published for 33 years

from 1883 to 1916, expanded from Cairo to Kashgar,

Kazan to India, and became one of the most widely

circulated publications of the era. In 1885, the

newspaper’s initial three hundred subscribers would

increase to one thousand.

As stated previously, Ismailbek Gasprali founded

the first “Usuli Jadid” school in Crimea in 1884 and

Political and Legal Views of the Jadids of Turkestan

1349

began publishing his ideas for reforming the

educational system in the “Tarjimon” (“Translator”)

newspaper. According to him, the following

challenges confronted the educational system:

 the school and madrasah should be

separated;

 primary school instructors should be trained

separately;

 the educator should receive a monthly salary

and not “charity”;

 it is more effective to teach reading and

writing with new “Alphabet” texts than with

the outdated “hijjalama” method;

 not just reading, but also writing should be

emphasized;

 separate schools for females should be

established, with a focus on their reading

and writing.

 instruction should be based on a specific

curriculum and supported by texts.

It is evident that the majority of Ismailbek

Gasprali’s opinions are derived from his life

experiences and have significant political, social, and

legal significance. The “methodology” movement

begun in Crimea by Ismailbek Gasprali is beginning

to bear fruit over time. By 1904, approximately 5,000

“Usuli jadid” institutions had opened in Russia. The

movement then expanded to Turkestan. However,

Kaufman, the colonial governor of Turkestan, viewed

the new educational system as a threat to the Tsar’s

administration and closed these schools, replacing

them with ones that taught in two languages (Russian

and local). By 1915, ninety-five percent of pupils in

such schools were Russian children. According to

Turkish scholar Nadir Davlat, only 65 of the 415

children who matriculated from “Tashkent Teachers’

School” between 1879 and 1904 were of Turkic

descent (11 Uzbeks, Turkmen, and Tatars, and 54

Kazakhs and Kyrgyz).

The majority of Turkestan’s intellectuals and

populace supported the establishment of “Usuli Jadid”

institutions. Because this issue was crucial to the

future of children and the nation’s prospects. I.

Gasprali recorded his theoretical ideas in a document

and sent it to the Russian government, along with a

copy to Governor General N.O.Rosenbach.

Unfortunately, the outcome is not what Gasprali had

hoped for; he was rejected. After that, he approached

the emir of Bukhara, Abdulahad, with whom he had

cordial relations, and requested permission to

establish new schools in Bukhara, a region of

Turkestan. During his journey to Russia in early 1893,

Amir Abdulahad visited Bokhchasaroy, where he had

a lengthy conversation with Ismailbek Gasprali. As a

consequence of the conversation, the emir invites

Ismailbek Gaspirali to Bukhara.

At the end of May 1893, I.Gasprali visited

Bukhara after accepting Amir Abdulahad’s invitation.

During the journey, he visited a number of old

schools in Samarkand and Tashkent. There, he

discussed the Turkmenistan education system with

government officials, including N. Ostroumov.

Gasprali was cordially welcomed at Amir

Abdulahad’s summer residence in Shahrisabz.

During lengthy conversations, he elicited sympathy

for his ideas. Despite this, it could not accomplish the

desired outcome. The reason for this is that by this

time, the emir of Bukhara had lost the desire to make

unilateral decisions without permission from the

Tsar’s government (Mehmet, 1987).

I.Gasprali himself writes extensively about the

creative influence of his teacher Sh.Marjani.

European influence reached Turkestan along with

Russian rule; this cannot be denied. This impact is

evident in all aspects of life, including economic,

social, and cultural relations. Consequently, it became

apparent that the existing madrasa education in

Turkestan regions was insufficient and that it was

necessary to place greater emphasis on secular

sciences. The necessity of establishing an organic

connection with the world's science and culture began

to be discussed, and as mentioned, this movement had

its origins in Turkestan. Ahmad Donish is the first to

bring up the necessity of reforming the education

system in Bukhara and Samarkand. In his works

“Navadir ul-Waqe” and “Biographical Status of the

Emir of Bukharai Sharif,” he expressed his ideas

regarding reform following the occupation of the

Bukhara Emirate by tsarist troops. In addition, it

should be noted that I.Gasprali’s “Tarjiman”

(“Translator”) newspaper, numerous literatures from

Kazan and Azerbaijan, and the “Young Turks” and

“Young Iranians” greatly influenced the formation of

Jadidism in Turkestan. In Fitrat’s “Munozara,” which

has become an educational program of Jadidism, he

mentioned renowned scholars such as Abdurashid

Ibrahimbek and prominent leaders of Young Turks

and Young Iranians such as Anvarbek and Niyoziyov,

and he emphasized that their path would serve as a

model for the Jadids of Turkestan and Bukhara (Fitrat,

2000).

The social-educational, literary-publication

“Shoro” began publication in Orenburg on January 10,

1908. This magazine was published by the renowned

Tatar poet Zakir Romiev (Dardmand), who worked in

the gold industry, and Riza Fakhriddin was its editor-

in-chief. Uzbek intelligentsia are familiar with well-

known Tatar poets such as Fatih Karimov, Kabir

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Bakir, and Sharif Kamal, who served on the

magazine’s editorial board. The magazine publishes

not only the works of Tatar and Bashkir authors, but

also articles on the lives and works of Hafiz, Umar

Khayyam, Sa’di, Abu A’la al-Maari, Nizami, Navoi,

Fuzuli, Makhtumquli, Mirza Fatali Akhundov, and

Namiq Kamal. Additionally, Uzbek authors

participated in the magazine’s activities.

The magazine has 14 permanent columns,

including: 1) notable people and events, 2) articles, 3)

religious issues, 4) education and education, 5) health,

6) archaeological monuments, 7) literature: poetry

and prose, 8) bibliography and criticism, etc. The

columns address numerous topics of interest to the

Muslim community. The following wise remarks

from the “Words of Great People” column provide

insight into the magazine’s ideological and

educational orientation.

“A dream does not save, only action saves” (george

ibsen).

“"life is a constant movement” (l.n.tolstoy).

“i consider great men only those who have shown

courage for humanity” (voltaire).

“there is nothing in the world stronger and weaker

than words” (i.s.turgenev).

It would not be an exaggeration to state that the

magazine was instrumental in transforming the

jadidist movement into the national revival

movement. Tatar intellectuals, inspired by the

tremendous success of the publication sho’ra among

turkic peoples, began publishing the newspaper “vaqt”

(“time”). The most significant fact is that the majority

of the aforementioned intellectuals attended madrasas

in bukhara, samarkand, or khiva and pursued the path

of a central asian-born sect. As much as the works of

our medieval thinkers nourished their souls, so too did

the ideas of ismoilbek gasprali and his colleagues

have a significant impact. We can conclude that the

enlightenment movement that emerged in turkestan at

the close of the 19th century and the beginning of the

20th century had its origins in our soil.

A further source should not be overlooked when

discussing the origins of uzbek modernism. In turkey,

these are the young ottoman movement and tanzimat

literature. The government of the shura, which

resisted the rapprochement of turkic peoples

vehemently, adopted all measures for the abrupt

termination of scientific, cultural, social, and

commercial relations between uzbekistan and turkey.

The history of these relations prior to 1917 is thus

being neglected. Nonetheless, fitrat, one of the

architects of uzbek modern literature, wrote his first

works in turkey between 1909 and 1913 under the

influence of the young turks movement and literature,

and these works served as a program of modern

literature. Undoubtedly, a great number of young

uzbeks went to turkey to study before and after fitrat,

and upon their return, the vast majority opened

modern schools and contributed to establishing the

foundations of modern literature and theater.

In the sphere of modernism, relations between

turkey and turkestan were not unilateral. In response,

the young ottomans dispatched emissaries to

turkestan and eastern turkestan (koshghar) in an effort

to propagate turkism and jadidism.

Important information about this can be found in

the frequently cited chronicles of v.yan, whose

historical works about genghis khan and botu are

well-known to uzbek readers. In 1933, while living in

moscow and working at the central publishing house

of the peoples of the east, he encountered cholpon and

posed a number of questions to him in order to write

a brief article about him for the great soviet

encyclopedia. Cholpon responded to one such query

by stating that he had met two turkish intellectuals in

andijan who were traveling from turkey to east

turkestan to promote the ideas of the young ottomans

and had paused in the ferghana valley for a period of

time. Sulayman yunus, cholpon’s father, desired his

son (cholpon’s father) to become a teacher and was

raising him for this purpose prior to that time.

Cholpon, however, ran away to tashkent and became

a jadid writer against his father’s wishes after

becoming acquainted with jadid concepts.

Considering that cholpon arrived in tashkent in 1914,

he was subjected to the young ottomans’ influence.

Gulomkodir norkhojaev, a geodetic scientist who

published his memoirs about cholpon, claims that he

and other young people routinely read the turkish

magazine “sarvati funun” at the “turon” library in

tashkent. They attempted to educate their pupils

under the influence of the turkish jadidist movement.

One such individual is eson efendi from tashkent,

who contributed to the development of oybek.

The turkish officers captured during the russo-

turkish war of 1914 comprise a unique chapter in the

history of turkish-uzbek relations. As should be stated

first, the contribution of turkish officers to the

revitalization of uzbek educational and cultural

affairs and the formation of a gifted generation of

intelligentsia is not insignificant. It turned out that the

small party had visited turkestan four times. The

fourth group to enter turkestan was substantially

larger than the previous three. During the first world

war, one of its “members” was roji chakiroz, a turkish

officer captured in the caucasus. Temur khojaoglu,

the son of usman khoja, a representative of the uzbek

resistance movement, compiled his father’s memoirs

Political and Legal Views of the Jadids of Turkestan

1351

in 1987 for “history of the turkic world” issues 1

through 12. These recollections are significant

because they cast new light on a number of significant

historical figures and events that transpired in

turkestan between 1914 and 1923. The primary

responsibility of contemporary intellectuals is to

combat the russification policy, which could have

tragic consequences for the uzbek people in the future,

to educate the young generation to respect the

national language, history, and culture, to preserve

national traditions and arts, and to achieve

independence in the near future. Was intended to

implant the ideals of youth into the minds of youth.

Turkish officers were engaged in educational

activities not only in schools in tashkent, but also in

kokand and possibly in other cities in the ferghana

valley, according to articles on the life of abdulla

qahhor. In their activities, they paid close attention to

promoting the foundations of turkishness. But at the

same time, advanced intellectuals such as oybek,

mirkarim asim, and abdulla qahhor arose among the

young people educated at the time by turkish officers.

In addition to educational work in the schools

where turkish officers served, gangs such as “turkish

force” were formed, whose members organized

military-patriotic exercises, sporting events, music

performances, and theater nights.

In addition, the fact that uzbek youth (including

fitrat) traveled to turkey as “red muslim children” and

returned as “turkish” and “jadid” demonstrates the

importance of the "turkish factor" in the emergence of

the uzbek jadid movement. Cholpon’s work was

influenced by turkish poets such as yahya kamal,

tavfiq fikrat, and muhammad amin, but oibek’s work,

who entered poetry in the early 1920s, was not

influenced by this fact, indicating that scientists still

need to research this factor.

On the one hand, it is known that as a result of the

collapse of the social system of the 16th to 19th

centuries in Turkestan – the feudal state – stagnation

in the development of society ensued, and on the

other hand, as a result of the conquest and

colonization of Turkestan by the Tsar’s troops, such

a terrible situation arose in the country that, without

an economic, cultural, and educational base, it was

impossible for any movement to awaken.

3 CONCLUSIONS

Therefore, it is impossible to analyse the birth of the

jadidism movement in Turkestan without identifying

its sources and determining the points at which these

sources relate to the birth of the jadidism movement

in Turkestan. If Turkestan lacked the necessary social

and cultural ground (internal conditions) for the

development of the Jadidism movement, the process

of emergence and formation of the Uzbek Jadidism

movement would not have been so intense. This

ground is predominantly associated with the creative

endeavours of poets and authors like Mahmudhoja

Behbudi, Abdurauf Fitrat, Munavvar Qori

Abdurashidkhanov, Abdulla Qadiri, and Abdulhamid

Cholpon.

REFERENCES

Ahmed Zaki Validi Togon. (1997) The land of the divided

wolf (Memories). – Tashkent.

Alimova, D. (1996) Historical worldview of the Jadids and

their projection of the future of Turkestan. – From the

pages of the struggle for the independence and unity of

Turkestan. – Tashkent. – pp. 8-20.

Alimova, D. (1998) Jadid movement in the interpretation of

the historian of the colonial era // New history of

Uzbekistan: a new perspective. From the Jadid

movement to national independence. – Tashkent. – 96

Alimova, D. (1999) Socio-political essence of the Jadid

movement and Jadidism // Struggle for Jadidism,

reform, renewal, independence and development. –

Tashkent. – pp. 35-52.

Azamhojaev, S. (1995) For the unity of Turkestan (pages

from the history of our independence). – Tashkent: Fan.

– 15 p.

Azamhojaev, S. (2000) Autonomy of Turkestan. –

Tashkent: Manaviyat. – 167 p.

Baldauf, I. (2001) Perspectives on Uzbek literature of the

20th century // Editor-in-chief N. Karimov. – Tashkent:

Manaviyat. – 12 p.

Behbudi, M. (1999) Selected works / Compiler, foreword

and comments: B. Kasimov. – Tashkent: Manaviyat. –

280 p.

Boltaboev, H. (1996) Fitrat’s scientific heritage. –

Tashkent: Fan. – 128 p.

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