Manifestations of Separatism in Central Asia and Peculiarities of

Counteraction

A’zam Kh.Khudaykulov

University of World Economy and Diplomacy, Tashkent, Uzbekistan

Keywords: Separatism, Secession, Conflict, Ethnic Minorities, Security, Territorial Integrity, Methods.

Abstract: This article examines the threat of separatism to regional security in Central Asia. It explores the historical

roots, causes, and factors contributing to this issue. Through factor and comparative analysis, the author

identifies key patterns and drivers of separatist movements in the region. The study highlights the complex

interplay of historical grievances, ethnic tensions, economic disparities, and external influences that fuel

separatist sentiments. Based on the findings, the author offers recommendations for countermeasures tailored

to the unique context of Central Asia. These recommendations aim to address the underlying causes of

separatism, promote social cohesion, and enhance regional stability. The study underscores the importance of

a multifaceted approach, including political, economic, and social strategies, to effectively mitigate the threat

of separatism and ensure long-term security in the region..

1 INTRODUCTION

Despite the intensive progress of globalization and

regional integration, the self-determination of ethnic

minorities and separatist movements is gaining

momentum in many countries of the world. The

situation on the borders of states is particularly tense

due to constant territorial claims and disputes. In

some cases, ethnic communities express

dissatisfaction with their position in the state and

demand greater regional autonomy. In other cases,

ethnic communities may struggle to secede from the

state.

The works of Russian researcher Daniil

Kotsyubinsky "Global separatism - the main plot of

the XXI century" (Blanken, 2012) and "Age of

secession" by Syracuse University professor Ryan

Griffiths (Gibler et al., 2014) prove that this century

will be "the century of separatism". Experts estimate

that only about 25 Member States of the United

Nations can boast of the absence of secessionist

movements on their territory. Analyses suggest that,

on average, about 52 separatist movements have

emerged each year since 1945, rising to about 55 by

2011. Research from other academic papers shows

https://orcid.org/0009-0001-0875-5673

that between 1945 and 2012, 464 separatist groups in

120 countries were identified.

2 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

The object of the research is the Separatism

phenomenon in the Central Asian region. Factor

analysis, systematic analysis, historical, comparison,

and generalization methods were used in the research.

3 RESULT AND DISCUSSION

During the study, the causes and factors influencing

the manifestation of separatism were identified, as

well as the differences in this phenomenon in the

Central Asian region. Methods of counteraction were

studied and recommendations were developed in this

direction.

Most new states arise because of separatism, which

can be direct or indirect. The separation of the part

from the whole or the disintegration of

multicomponent societies causes this phenomenon.

However, open separatist movements do not always

lead to political independence, except in some cases,

1640

Kh.Khudaykulov, A.

Manifestations of Separatism in Central Asia and Peculiarities of Counteraction.

DOI: 10.5220/0012988900003882

Paper published under CC license (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0)

In Proceedings of the 2nd Pamir Transboundary Conference for Sustainable Societies (PAMIR-2 2023), pages 1640-1644

ISBN: 978-989-758-723-8

such as the former Soviet Union or the states of

Eastern Europe, including the former Yugoslavia and

Czechoslovakia. Separatism most often represents

political activity aimed at reducing the central

government's control over a certain territory and

transferring power to the population. According to

John Wood, separatism includes any political action

that seeks to weaken the power of the central

government over a particular territory" (Griffiths,

2016).

When a state faces an external threat, the government

takes all possible measures (including the use of

violence) to preserve its territorial integrity. The main

reason for such actions is the possibility of hostile

foreign states finding supporters in the secessionist

areas. The central government is intensifying its

efforts to counter the division even though these

measures may limit the right of the society to self-

determination. Researchers also argue that the

government, by resorting to violence and similar

methods, provokes negative reactions among the

"outcasts" and thus contributes to the violent

mobilization of minorities. (Kotsyubinsky, 2013).

According to studies on colonialism, it has become

clear that in almost all cases, when informal leaders

realized that the government was neglecting their

interests, the colonies began to push for secession. [6]

Territorially localized ethno-cultural minorities are at

the greatest risk of oppression. Research shows that

most secessionist conflicts (57 out of 60) are ethnic or

pseudo-ethnic. The authors emphasize that the

likelihood of separatist conflicts is higher when ethnic

groups are excluded from political decision-making

and live in large countries or countries with high

ethnic diversity.

After the collapse of the Soviet Union, new cases

of division and inter-ethnic conflicts emerged in the

newly formed independent countries. Contemporary

challenges in Central Asia, such as religious

extremism and terrorism, are accompanied by the

increasingly worrying phenomenon of separatism in

the border zones of Central Asian states, causing

inter-ethnic divisions.

3.1 Uzbekinstan

Uzbekistan is mostly associated with the problem of

separatism, which includes Karakalpakstan, an

autonomous republic within the country. From 1917

to 1920, the territory of modern Karakalpakstan was

included in the revived Khanate of Khiva. At that

time there were uprisings, but they were not ethnic,

such as in Abkhazia or South Ossetia, which were a

manifestation of ideological differences between the

Bolsheviks and the authorities of the khanate. These

uprisings resulted in the proclamation of the Khorezm

People's Soviet Republic, later divided between the

Uzbek and Turkmen SSRs and the Karakalpak

Autonomous Region of the RSFSR. From 1936, the

Karakalpak ASSR was incorporated into the RSFSR

and then into the Uzbek SSR until 1991. Thus, from

1936 to 1991, the territory of Karakalpakstan was

formally under the jurisdiction of Tashkent.

During the 20

century, the Karakalpaks expressed

their insistent desire to create an "own" union republic,

but this aspiration remained unrealized. In 1990,

Karakalpakstan declared its state sovereignty, and in

1993 signed an interstate treaty to join the already

independent Uzbekistan, becoming an autonomous

republic there and never realizing secession. A

referendum that would have settled the status of the

territory never took place. Karakalpakstan is not only

open to exit but also the possibility of irredentism -

the desire to unite with Kazakhstan, based on the

ethnic affinity of the Karakalpaks with the Kazakhs.

In fact, in some actions of Astana, one can catch

irredentist attempts: dissemination of information

through mass media that Karakalpaks are a Kazakh

sub-ethnos and their language is a dialect of Kazakh

(Wimmer et al., 2009).

Another direction of exit is rapprochement with

Russia, with which Karakalpakstan was part of the

Soviet empire for some time, but currently has no

common border with it. In 2014, after the Crimean

events, there was a growing interest in this direction:

some representatives of the public movement "Alga,

Karakalpakstan" spoke about the possibility of

joining Russia, but did not receive support from the

population. (Wood, 1981). In addition, the July 2022

event in Nukus caused serious concerns on the part of

the government, which in turn required the leadership

of Uzbekistan to adopt the necessary reforms to

prevent an internal conflict situation in the country. In

addition, the low standard of living and the historical

memory of living as part of another state are factors

contributing to the emergence of centrifugal

processes. However, the authorities are taking

measures to improve the socio-economic situation in

the region and reduce radical Islamization.

3.2 Khazakhstan

Since the collapse of the USSR, Kazakhstan has

attracted the attention of analysts several times due to

the increasing separatist sentiments of the Russian

population in the northern regions of the country.

However, due to its unitary form of administrative

and territorial structure, there are no potential

Manifestations of Separatism in Central Asia and Peculiarities of Counteraction

1641

separatist ethnic regions in Kazakhstan and,

accordingly, there is no state that could secede from

Kazakhstan. The country's borders are fortified and

historically have not been expanded at the expense of

other states' lands. Kazakhstani authorities have also

successfully combated separatist manifestations

following Russia's reintegration of Crimea by

increasing criminal penalties for separatism. After

30 years of Kazakhstan's independence, and

despite ethnically motivated incidents in the media,

the country's political nation including the Russian-

speaking population has been formed. This

circumstance is an additional factor that makes

manifestations of separatism in the country unlikely.

Some Uzbek communities living compactly in the

Osh and Jalal-Abad regions of the Kyrgyz Republic

have clearly expressed separatist tendencies. In the

past, in 1990 and 2010, such aspirations led to armed

conflicts, but they were not accompanied by either

increased autonomy of these oblasts or secession.

One of the ideologues of the 2010 events was accused

of attempting to create Uzbek autonomy in the

southern part of the country. [11] In both cases,

representatives of Uzbeks, who were not united in

organized political movements, advocated the

creation of autonomy and raising the status of the

Uzbek language.

However, it should be noted that the experience of

Uzbeks in Kyrgyzstan cannot be called separatist

because, firstly, there was no common political force

advocating the principles of separation, and secondly,

the majority of protesters did not demand secession

from the country. The events in Osh in 1990 and 2010

were related to domestic and nationalistic aspects

rather than political motives.

3.3 Tajikistan

Tajikistan's Republic of Gorno-Badakhshan existed

as a de facto state from 1992 to 1997 but has attracted

less academic interest compared to European and

Caucasus regions of the former Soviet Union.

Annexed to the Tajik SSR by Moscow in 1925,

Gorno-Badakhshan exercised self-rule and expressed

a desire to join Russia, even using the Russian rouble.

Although its regional parliament proclaimed

sovereignty, it was not recognized nationally. The

separatist movement was relatively successful due to

an organized political force and the central

government's weakness during the civil war.

However, without a suitable supporting state, the

separatism ultimately failed, as Russia neither

bordered Gorno-Badakhshan nor had a dominant

ethnic presence.

In Uzbekistan, the Republic of Karakalpakstan is an

autonomist territory with a separatist movement led

by "Alga Karakalpakstan." The region has its own

language, Karakalpak, and a distinct ethnos favoring

secession. Despite having a history of armed struggle

for autonomy, notably in July 2022, it lacks a patron

state and borders with a supportive state of the same

ethnicity. The ASSR Supreme Council declared its

independence, but it was not successful. Transferred

by Moscow, Karakalpakstan has been part of

Uzbekistan since 1936 and previously existed within

the Kirghiz SSR and RSFSR between 1925 and 1936.

3.4 Kyrgyz Republic

The Osh and Jalal-Abad regions in Kyrgyzstan are

not formally segment states as the Kyrgyz population

exceeds the Uzbek population by more than two times

in both areas. There is no separatist political

organization, although there is a separate ethnos in

favor of secession, and the language differs from the

"mother state." There is no patron state, but there are

borders with a state sharing the same ethnicity, and

there is historical experience of armed struggle for

autonomy. They have not declared independence, and

the parent state has not responded to such a

declaration. Since 1990, Jalal-Abad was separated by

Moscow from Osh, and both regions have existed

within Kyrgyzstan as regions, without being part of

another state.

In contrast, the Gorno-Badakhshan region of

Tajikistan is a secessionist/autonomist territory with

the separatist political organization, Badakhshan

Gems. The region has its own language and a separate

ethnos favoring secession but lacks a patron state and

borders with a state of the same ethnicity. Unlike Osh

and Jalal-Abad, it has no historical experience of

armed struggle for autonomy. The Council of

People's Deputies of AR declared independence,

which was not recognized by the Tajik state. Since

1925, Gorno-Badakhshan was handed over by

Moscow and has existed as an Autonomous Region

within Tajikistan, without being part of another state.

4 EMERGENT SEPARATION

CAUSE

The emergence of separatism is often rooted in

several key factors. These include a state divided into

multiple regions with centralized power and weak

local governance, exacerbated by political crises and

acute socio-economic problems. Factors contributing

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to separatist movements include ethno-confessional

divisions, where separatist sentiments thrive along

ethnocultural borders. Socio-economic disparities

between regions also fuel separatism, driven by

differing state policies. Many separatist regions are

demarcated by natural boundaries, isolating them

from the rest of the state. Geopolitical interests of

external actors and social mobilization through

protests, rallies, and even terrorist activities further

amplify separatist tendencies. The presence of

political organizations or leaders advocating

secession, along with historical precedents of separate

state formations, also play significant roles.

Additionally, separatist movements often exploit

grievances about the exploitation of natural resources

by the central government, adding to agitation and

unrest.

5 COUNTER SEPARATION

MEASURE

Countering separatism necessitates a multifaceted

approach grounded in principles of sovereignty,

equality, and territorial integrity, while rejecting

double standards. Addressing this complex issue

requires comprehensive measures spanning socio-

economic development, preventive actions, political

reforms, legal frameworks, and other initiatives. At

the state level, efforts are bifurcated into two main

directions. Firstly, there are measures aimed at

upholding human and civil rights to prevent conflicts

based on national, racial, and religious grounds.

Secondly, combating separatism involves actively

addressing criminal activities associated with

separatist movements.

Non-violent methods play a crucial role in addressing

separatism through political and economic incentives.

These include granting greater autonomy or

devolution of powers to problem regions, providing

financial support to regional leaderships, conducting

propaganda to discredit separatist leaders, and

imposing economic sanctions where necessary.

Conversely, when non-violent methods prove

inadequate, more coercive measures may be

employed. This can involve legal actions such as

imprisonment of separatist leaders and activists, and

in extreme cases, the use of force to suppress armed

separatist activities, including military operations to

neutralize separatist bases and restore order.

In situations where armed separatist formations gain

local support and pose a significant threat, several key

tasks must be addressed. These include building trust

with the affected population through information

campaigns, political engagement, and humanitarian

aid. Simultaneously, efforts should isolate the region

from external sources of support for arms and

resources. Finally, decisive actions must be taken to

dismantle separatist armed bases and infrastructure.

Effective management of these tasks requires timely

prediction and strategic planning to anticipate the

stages of conflict development, assess territorial

coverage, and predict outcomes based on the evolving

dynamics.

To effectively prevent manifestations of separatism,

further recommendations include enhancing

capabilities to counter nationalism and separatism,

monitoring and disrupting destructive activities in

virtual communities promoting separatist ideologies,

analyzing the activities of separatist entities and their

supporters, and identifying potential conflict zones

along national-ethnic borders. Additionally, fostering

positive narratives of inter-ethnic harmony through

virtual platforms and social networks can play a

pivotal role in shaping public perceptions and

countering divisive ideologies, thereby promoting

stability and unity within Uzbekistan.

6 CONCLUSION

Based on the above-mentioned it can be concluded

that nowadays the phenomenon of separatism poses a

serious threat to state security and is a source of

ethno-political conflicts in different regions of the

world. In the course of research, it was revealed that

this phenomenon has a specific character in each case,

conditioned by regional and ethno-cultural

peculiarities, and requires careful analysis and study.

Although separatists rarely manage to achieve

independence, they are becoming increasingly

pragmatic, making the transition from secessionism

to regionalism in their programs.

The analysis of cases of separatism in Central Asia

allows us to state with certainty that any attempt to

secede from the state is a complex process determined

by a multitude of factors: ethnic, cultural, linguistic,

historical, political, economic, military, and

geographical. However, such processes can create an

unfavourable military-political and social

environment for the region itself.

Resolution of the problem of separatism should seek

to use non-violent political methods, including

negotiations with regional political elites,

intensification of educational and propaganda

activities in the problem regions, and explaining to

the population the advantages of stable territorial

Manifestations of Separatism in Central Asia and Peculiarities of Counteraction

1643

integrity of the state and the disadvantages or

impossibility of secession and formation of a new

country.

Attempts to use force usually do not bring positive

results; they only increase the PR of secessionists and

separatists and transfer their struggle to the political

plane. Avoiding the development of secessionism and

separatism is much easier than trying to fight them.

An important legal means of preserving territorial

integrity is international cooperation in the sphere of

protection of state borders. Foreign policy plays an

important role in the fight against secessionism and

separatism in general, not only aimed at normalizing

relations with the powers that patronize the rebels but

also at exerting pressure on diasporas that support

secessionist/separatist compatriots from abroad. The

success of the policy of countering separatism largely

depends on preventive measures aimed at

neutralizing the threat of the formation of armed

groups that proclaim separatist ideas.

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