Design Analysis of Smart Water Meters: An Open Design Approach

avio Henrique Alves

1 a

, Maria Cecilia Calani Baranauskas

1 b

and Alexandre L’Erario

2 c

Department of Information Technology, Federal University of Paran

a, Curitiba-PR, Brazil

Institute of Computing State University of Campinas, Campinas-SP, Brazil

Department of Systems and Dep. of Computing, Federal Technological University of Paran

a, Corn

elio Proc

opio, Brazil

ﬂ

Keywords:

Socially Aware Design, IoT, Open Design, Smart Water Meter, Sustainability.

Abstract:

The control of water resources has become increasingly necessary due to population growth and climate ques-

tions. This control is so critical that it is related to the UN’s Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs): SDG

#6 is clean water and sanitation, which aims to ensure the availability and sustainable management of water

and sanitation for all people. This study addresses the application of Information and Communication Tech-

nologies (ICT) as a solution to water management problems in smart cities, highlighting the importance of

the participatory construction of smart water meters (SWMs) as a potential solution to monitor water con-

sumption. The design and implementation of SWM provides signiﬁcant technical and social challenges, but

promises to improve efﬁciency in water control and consumption. The objective of this study is to investigate

SWMs, analyzed using the open design methodology to identify problems, questions, solutions and ideas in

their implementation. We understand how SWMs can beneﬁt water management and propose more effective

and participatory solutions. The methodology adopted involves three stages: analysis of the case of Company

X, selection of cases from the literature, and analysis with Open Design. Analysis is performed using Open

Design artifacts to identify stakeholders, questions and problems, and solutions and ideas related to SWMs.

As a result, it is possible to identify open problems and questions that need to consider a more participatory

and inclusive approach in developing SWM solutions. The use of Open Design is promising and makes stake-

holder engagement more effective in creating sustainable and affordable solutions.

1 INTRODUCTION

The presence of treated fresh water is essential to the

life of humanity and is intrinsically related to the way

of life of all people on the planet. The world’s cities

seek to become smarter as the population grows and

consumes more water resources, so these resources

must be managed efﬁciently (Wang and Li, 2021).

Currently, sustainability issues have gained noto-

riety, such as the United Nations Sustainable Devel-

opment Goals (SDGs): SDG #6 is Clean Water and

Sanitation, which has Information and Communica-

tion Technologies (ICT) as allies to achieve its objec-

tives (UN, 2015).

ICTs are used in experiments to automate the con-

trol and consumption of water in its various sectors

of use (Nascimento, 2022). Challenges such as im-

proving the data transmission rate, telecommunica-

https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0806-9726

https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4830-5298

https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5233-7113

tions standardization, sensors that detect quality and

not just quantity, and maintainability, among others

(Campisano et al., 2013), have not yet been overcome

for SWM to be effectively installed and used. Fur-

thermore, including stakeholders in this scenario adds

a result with better applicability to development.

Therefore, this research aimed to investigate and

apply the Open Design (OD) platform to understand

the problem in the speciﬁc context of water availabil-

ity and sustainable management. OD keeps the user

as an active part throughout the solution design and

development cycle, as an effective contributor with

their vision of their real needs (Gonc¸alves et al., 2021;

Reis et al., 2018).

This work applies the OD to selected literary

works and also in the case of a company in the pro-

duction sector. To this end, we analyzed SWM pro-

totypes, raising relevant aspects for the evaluation of

SWM products.

The methodology of this research followed three

steps to achieve its objectives. In the ﬁrst stage, we

Alves, F., Baranauskas, M. and L’Erario, A.

Design Analysis of Smart Water Meters: An Open Design Approach.

DOI: 10.5220/0012548400003690

Paper published under CC license (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0)

In Proceedings of the 26th International Conference on Enterprise Information Systems (ICEIS 2024) - Volume 2, pages 435-442

ISBN: 978-989-758-692-7; ISSN: 2184-4992

435

investigated the case of Company X, using sources

of evidence such as documentation, archival records,

and direct observation of the participant. In the

second stage, we selected cases from the literature,

searching for articles related to Smart Water Meters

(SWM) on the Web of Science, analyzing publication

trends and collaborations between countries.

Finally, in the third step, we performed an analy-

sis using the Open Design Platform, which included

identifying stakeholders and developing an assess-

ment framework to elicit stakeholder concerns and

needs, as well as propose solutions and ideas. These

steps provided a solid framework for understanding

the context of smart water meters and identifying

potential challenges and solutions to improve water

management.

This article is organized as follows: in Section 2

we present some challenges and limitations present

in the SWM design. In Section 3 we show how we

selected articles from the literature and analyzed the

case of the Company X prototype. In Section 4 we

present the results of the analysis of the use of OD ar-

tifacts. In Section 5, we discuss solutions and ideas

for problems and issues raised; in Section 6 we con-

clude our study.

2 BACKGROUND

Water scarcity is one of the critical SDGs (UN, 2015).

According to goal number 6 among those listed in the

SDGs, the intention is to guarantee the availability

and sustainable management of water and sanitation

for all, respecting an agenda that will last until 2030.

The SDGs propose the use of ICT for smarter

cities, but the control and consumption of water pose

challenges. Dawood et al. (2022) highlight the

fragility of water networks in several regions, such as

Latin America, the United States and Canada. They

advocate the use of ICT to guide decisions on repairs

and consumption control.

A study carried out by Beal and Flynn (2015) re-

veals various challenging and limiting issues, cover-

ing both economic and technical aspects in the plan-

ning phases. Among them are the positive return on

investment, few studies with qualiﬁed results, lim-

ited experiences and meters that offer different tech-

nologies. Furthermore, they present implementation

challenges, for example, developers with little experi-

ence, technology compatibility, implementation, ac-

quisition, and installation time and communication

variability between devices.

SWM solutions are intended to replace conven-

tional mechanical water meters. A water meter is a

device that measures and records the volume of wa-

ter consumed in water supply networks. Mechani-

cal recording mechanisms visibly display water con-

sumption, displaying it in volume measurement units

widely recognized throughout the world, such as cu-

bic meters or their smallest parts. The modiﬁed SWM

system uses this mechanical apparatus to perform the

measurement and interpret the data without human in-

tervention (Pimenta and Chaves, 2021).

Contributing to the problem of water control and

consumption through smart IoT devices are solutions

explored in academic and industrial contexts. How-

ever, despite several efforts, there are still difﬁculties

in applying and using smart devices to control and

consume water (Fuentes and Mauricio, 2020; Hem-

dan et al., 2023).

In this article, we ﬁltered and selected reports

from articles and a business case from several other

researchers and technology professionals who believe

that a possible solution is to employ smart devices

to control and consume water. However, outstanding

challenges impede the use and adoption of these tech-

nologies in residential meters on a signiﬁcant popula-

tion scale.

We use two OD artifacts, the Stakeholder Analysis

(Interested Parties) and the Assessment Framework

on the Open Design Platform, to investigate, under-

stand and propose solutions to the problem of water

control and consumption using smart devices in the

meters of water distribution networks.

Open Design is a Platform that allows anyone to

contribute ideas and feedback to the development of

products and services, from the beginning of the pro-

cess, and not just in the prototyping phase (Gonc¸alves

et al., 2021). Designed based on Organizational Semi-

otics (OS) and Participatory Design (PD), (Pereira

et al., 2013) OD was used in several scenarios such

as: combating violence against children and adoles-

cents (da Silva J

unior et al., 2022), mobile application

(Buchdid et al., 2019), functionality research (Reis

et al., 2018) among other applications.

The application of the OD principles that the Open

Design Platform offers to produce promising results

in addressing speciﬁc issues, relying on the involve-

ment of interested parties and considering socioeco-

nomic factors. It aims to achieve socially responsible,

participatory and universally beneﬁcial design, acces-

sibility, transparency, sustainability, collaboration and

others, both in the process and in the ﬁnal product

(Pereira et al., 2013).

ICEIS 2024 - 26th International Conference on Enterprise Information Systems

436

3 WORK METHODOLOGY

The study is divided into 3 stages: the ﬁrst stage is

the transcription of the case of company X. The sec-

ond stage is bibliometrics and visual analysis of the

review of selected articles on SWMs. The third and

ﬁnal step is to analyze the perspective chosen in steps

one and two. We insert the information extracted from

both steps

into the Open Design Platform to ana-

lyze the relevant information by comparing Problems

and Questions versus Solutions and Ideas, as shown

in Figure 1.

Figure 1: Steps of the methodology.

3.1 Step 1 – The Case of Company X

Our investigation used sources of evidence such as

documentation, archive records, direct participant ob-

servation with the participation of the main researcher

of this article, thus maintaining multiple sources of

evidence.

We selected the audience for the investigation of

the Company X case to feed the Stakeholders artefact

on the Open Design Platform. In addition to the se-

lected articles, the case of Company X was analysed

from the perspective of the Evolution Frame artefact

to list the Problems & Questions and Solutions &

Ideas of Open Design. To maintain the anonymity of

the company participating in the case study, for com-

pliance reasons, we are using the ﬁctitious name of

the company, thus being called “Company X”.

3.2 Step 2 - Cases Selected from

Literature

To prepare this step, we considered some systematic

mapping steps of Kitchenham et al. (2017). The se-

lected papers were articles searched in the Web of Sci-

ence

in October 2023.

Available in: https://prnt.sc/K94f0G1MD0Uz

https://www.webofscience.com/

The search criteria involved topics related to

Smart Water Meter (Smart Water Meter OR Smart

Water Consumption OR Connected Water Meter OR

IoT Water Meter OR Automated Water Meter OR Ad-

vanced Water Meter OR State-of-the-Art Water Me-

ter OR Electronic Water Meter OR Remote Reading

Smart Water Meter OR Digitized Water Meter OR

Next-Generation Water Meter), we made the search

more ﬂexible using only the “OR” operator because

we aimed to expand the scope of the term SWM

(Badke, 2021).

We used the start date of 2016, which was the year

the Company X prototype was created, to select the

articles, so we collected articles from 2016 to 2023.

The aim of the search was to identify the most

cited articles in any language related to the creation

of the Company X prototype analyzed on each con-

tinent. The Web of Science made possible to iden-

tify publication trends in research on SWM, its use in

countries and regions, as well as the most cited arti-

cles in each continent. In addition, the VOS viewer

software

(Van Eck and Waltman, Leiden University,

Leiden, Netherlands) was used to perform data min-

ing, mapping, and clustering of the retrieved articles

(n=3055). Countries were labelled with colored cir-

cles, as shown in Figure 3.

The size of the circles was positively correlated

with the occurrence of the countries in the title.

Therefore, the size of an item’s label and circle was

determined by the weight of the item. The heavier the

weight of an item, the larger the label and circle of the

item.

Finally, the articles were organized by citation

number and title, and abstract and keywords were an-

alyzed. The exclusion criteria were: No focus on so-

lutions in the context of SWM and non-accessible ar-

ticles. The most cited articles from each of the 6 con-

tinents were ﬁltered and no publications with afﬁlia-

tion from the continent of Antarctica were found.

3.3 Step 3 - Analysis with Open Design

We used artifacts from the Open Design Platform (da

Silva et al., 2019) to analyze the Company X proto-

type and 6 other solutions reported in selected arti-

cles. We applied two OD artifacts, the ﬁrst artifact

is the Stakeholder Identiﬁcation Diagram framework,

which identiﬁes who can affect or be affected by the

solution and we map them into ﬁve categories (oper-

ation, contributions, source, market and community)

that represent their inﬂuence on the design.

The second OD artifact is the Evaluation Frame-

work, which makes it possible to survey the Problems

https://www.vosviewer.com/

Design Analysis of Smart Water Meters: An Open Design Approach

437

& Stakeholder Questions of interested parties and the

possible Solutions & Ideas that may arise from this

analysis. The Open Design Platform supported all

analysis

. We try to explicitly identify the decisions

made during the design process and the reasons why

those decisions were made.

4 RESULTS

4.1 Step 1 – The Case of Company X

The study investigated the case of Company X in its

real context that idealized the solution for reading and

measuring residential water consumption in a SWM

prototype in 2016. The objective was solving prob-

lems of measuring residential water meters that were

done manually in a complex, repetitive process, prone

to human and bureaucratic errors.

Figure 2: Company X prototype.

In the design process, the perspectives of two sys-

tems analysts, a supervisor of residential water meter

reading and metering services, a general services as-

sistant, and a commercial director were considered as

stakeholders. Thus, there were a total of 6 participants

(n =6) in the project, all members were senior in their

roles and had high technical knowledge of the context

in which they intended to solve the problem.

As presented in the Figure 2, Company X created

the prototype that contained IoT hardware items such

as ﬂow sensors, Wi-Fi module, GSM module, SD

storage card, LCD screen, power supply, wires, resis-

tors, protoboard, and mechanical water consumption

meter.

Another part of the solution had a communication

software that recorded the ﬂow through a text ﬁle on

an SD card, marking the date/time when the measure-

ment was made. All data was sent by message via

Available in: https://opendesign.ic.unicamp.br/p/ﬂavio-

halves/SWM/

3G connection, to a server that made the information

available to the Web and Mobile applications.

Data collected from Company X subsidized in-

formation used to understand the on-site design en-

vironment of an SWM, as well as the experiences of

the participants, contributed to the completion of the

Stakeholder Diagram.

4.2 Step 2 – Bibliometric and Visual

Analysis

Three thousand and ﬁfty-ﬁve articles on smart water

meters published between 2016 and 2023 were re-

trieved from the Web of Science database. There was

a tendency to increase the number of publications be-

tween 2016 and 2023, the aggregate increase for the

period is approximately 81.08%.

The number of publications peaked (592 articles)

in 2022. The publications came from 79 different

countries. Among these countries, the People’s Re-

public of China published the largest number of arti-

cles (702), followed by the United States (539) and

England (239).

The VOS Viewer software was used to analyze the

network visualization of co-authorship relationships

between countries. Only countries with a minimum

of 5 cited articles were included. Of the 79 countries

that reached the threshold, the People’s Republic of

China was at the center of SWM research and was in

closely collaborated with India, Iran, and South Korea

(Figure 3).

Figure 3: Network map showing the relationships between

various countries in the SWM area.

Substantial research collaborations were also

noted between the United States and other coun-

tries, including Italy, Japan, and France. Brazil has

some expression with other countries, especially with

Spain.

The terms stand out in large ﬁve clusters (Figure

4), with themes that were also concerns of those in-

volved in the prototype of Company X, reported in the

ICEIS 2024 - 26th International Conference on Enterprise Information Systems

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previous section (4.1 Step 1 – The Case of Company

X), such as, for example, difﬁculty with the source

of ”energy” (yellow cluster) to keep the devices con-

nected, how to ”measure” (green cluster) the ”ﬂow” in

case of power or ”load” outage, how to solve the un-

availability of the ”network” (red cluster) to send data

to the server and how to identify and process data with

other water “properties” (blue cluster).

Figure 4: Most commonly used terms in titles and abstracts.

Among other related terms, characterizing the

challenges present over the years, such as few studies

with qualiﬁed results, limited experiences, and meters

that offer different technologies, among others.

Table 1: Most cited articles on their continents.

According to the above-mentioned criteria, the ar-

ticles selected for the analysis step with the Open De-

sign Platform are presented in order of highest cita-

tion in Table 1.

4.3 Step 3 – Analysis with Open Design

To start using the Open Design Platform, we collected

the information provided by the Case of Company X,

to select the elements that make up the Stakeholder

Identiﬁcation Diagram (Figure 5). The prototype was

developed by the company in 2016 and unlike the

cases identiﬁed in the literature, we had access to user

feedback and interacted with the various stakeholders.

We obtained a total of 37 stakeholders allocated to

the different layers of the artifact. The Company X’s

case made it possible to include elements that were

cited and reported in the process of creating and de-

veloping SWMs.

4.3.1 Stakeholder Identiﬁcation Diagram

In the ’Operation’ layer, stakeholders considered

technical were identiﬁed, such as system analysts and

managers. They were directly involved in solving

technical processes such as information integration,

cost, business rules, communication, hardware, and

software.

In the ‘Contributions’ layer, we identiﬁed parties

that directly contribute with information to the cre-

ation of the SWM or were affected by it, i.e., Sani-

tation Company and Water Resources Managers, are

those who have much information, by having involve-

ment with consumers, suppliers, with technical par-

ties such as chemists responsible for the analysis of

water purity.

Figure 5: Stakeholder identiﬁcation diagram, selected from

the case of Company X.

In the ’Source’ layer, sources of information, such

as the media, consumers, and potential users of SWM,

such as citizens of a region, were identiﬁed. The

’Market’ layer was primarily composed of agencies

and departments that offered and controlled water

Design Analysis of Smart Water Meters: An Open Design Approach

439

consumption.

Composing the ’Community’ layer, we ﬁnd rep-

resentatives with concerns about the social context,

about data security policies, such as the Regulatory

and Standardization Bodies, or organizations and ac-

tions focused on sustainability, such as, for example,

the United Nations Organization (United Nations) and

Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).

These community members play a signiﬁcant role,

as they can establish legal regulations and formal

norms that direct strategy in raising awareness of the

use of natural resources with water.

4.3.2 Evaluation Framework

By classifying and organizing the stakeholders, it was

possible to clarify the needs of each agent and raise

their ’Problems & Questions’ in a systemic way. We

selected 43 problems and open questions identiﬁed in

the case of the company and in the review of the se-

lected articles.

We have separated some of the problems and

questions raised and illustrated them in Figure 6. It

is possible to access the data in full through the ad-

dress provided . Figure 7 shows a part of the result

of the artifact from the Open Design Platform ’Solu-

tions & Ideas’ selected in the artifacts 15 Ideas and

Solutions were generated in a speciﬁc context of wa-

ter availability and sustainable management.

4.3.3 Problems & Stakeholder Questions

In the ’Operation’ layer, 12 problems and questions

related to the technical concerns were identiﬁed (Fig-

ure 6), the most cited topics are about energy (Com-

pany X - Energy) to keep SWM active, network avail-

ability (Company X - Network) for data trafﬁc, lack

of standardization of the proposed solutions (ID 195

- Lack of Standardization) hindering replicability and

data security.

In addition to the variability of the data (ID 203

- Data Variability) in water consumption caused by

factors such as different end users, seasonality and

socioeconomic conditions of users. This variability

makes it challenging to accurately predict water con-

sumption.

Regarding the ’Contribution’ layer, costs related

to acquisition and installation (Company X - Acqui-

sition Cost) in homes were a concern raised, as it was

not deﬁned who will bear this ﬁnancial investment.

Current degraded infrastructure can be an aggravat-

ing factor to more ﬁnancial commitment (ID 139 -

Outdated Infrastructure Design).

Emphasizing that current urban water system de-

signs are often based on outdated data and assump-

tions about water consumption and billing patterns,

leading sustainability to unnecessary oversizing of in-

frastructure (ID 480 - Monthly Billing and Lack of

Awareness).

Figure 6: Fragment of the Evaluation Framework by select-

ing Problems & Questions.

In the category of ’Source’, questions and prob-

lems that affect citizens due to sensationalist news are

present (ID 194 - Disinformation); they can inﬂuence

the exacerbated consumption of water.

SWM can inﬂuence the perception of water as a

commodity and not as a common good, leading to a

change in the subjectivities of citizens (ID 195 - Im-

pact on Citizen Subjectivity that can add value when

considering that water is private property, not a nat-

ural resource that must be accessible to everyone for

consumption and survival.

Topics listed in the ’Market’ category reﬂect top-

ics such as excessive cost of implementation and

maintenance (ID 195 - High Initial Cost), SWM com-

pared to conventional meters, which can be a ﬁnancial

challenge. On the ﬁnancialization of water compa-

nies (ID 195 - Financialization of Water) and the role

of smart metering in increasing their revenue streams,

which may have wider societal implications, in which

water is primarily seen as an investment opportunity

and source of proﬁt.

The ’Community’ layer has broad problems and

questions that involve legislators and competent peo-

ple that aim at the well-being of all. There are con-

cerns about privacy issues related to the collection

of water consumption data, especially about customer

data (ID 195 - Privacy Concerns).

Sustainability issues such as water scarcity in

many parts of the world, which affects agricultural

processes (ID 135 - Water Scarcity) that use water

indiscriminately, for example, existing drip irrigation

systems are considered inefﬁcient due to minimal wa-

ICEIS 2024 - 26th International Conference on Enterprise Information Systems

440

ter control. irrigation amounts. We can consider it,

especially in varied conditions such as day and night

times and different seasons (ID 135 - Inefﬁcient Irri-

gation Systems).

The case of Company X highlights an imminent

concern in the case of replacing mechanical meters

with SWMs: what to do with the mechanical meters

that are replaced is also an open problem. (Company

X - Disposal of Replaced Meters).

5 DISCUSSION ON SOLUTIONS

& IDEAS FOR PROBLEMS &

QUESTIONS

Solutions & Ideas identiﬁed in the case of Company

X and in the selected articles, accounted for 15 items.

A fragment of the Solutions & Ideas from the Evalua-

tion Frame artefact is represented in Figure 7. We can

consider few Solutions & Ideas when we relate to the

Problems and Questions listed.

Figure 7: Fragment of the Evaluation Frame selecting So-

lutions & Ideas for Problems & Questions.

Company X did not resolve questions raised in

the process of creating its prototype, which led to the

discontinuation of the project. Other solutions pro-

posed in the selected articles emphasized the analysis

of data, which were collected in nations that have an

elevated level of economic and social development.

The United States (ID 203 - Support Vector Re-

gression (SVR) - ID 203 - Artiﬁcial Neural Net-

works (ANNs) - ID 203 - Random Forests (RFs)) and

Australia (ID 139 - Water End-Use Disaggregation),

which will already propose an analysis of the end use

of water, how to autonomously categorize water con-

sumption data into different categories, such as leaks,

washing machine, shower, irrigation, etc. This differ-

entiation helps both water service providers and cus-

tomers understand how water is being used, enabling

better insights into consumption patterns.

Other solutions and ideas match the local reality

of regions, countries, and nations with less developed

economies and lower living standards compared to

developed countries that have failed to deploy SWM

to use the data and information to improve their ser-

vices, such as Cape Town on the African Continent

(Booysen et al., 2019) which discusses the water cri-

sis faced and consumer responses to the threat of ra-

tioning and shortages.

Solutions are proposed to understand the dissemi-

nation of information (ID 194 - Media’s Role in Shap-

ing Perceptions). The media’s interpretation and dis-

cussion of the advertisements contribute to the pub-

lic’s perception of the crisis and play a signiﬁcant role

in driving behavioural change in the population.

Internet searches and social media activity were

used to play a crucial role in informing the population,

helping them to understand their vulnerability to the

water crisis and their capacity to respond (ID 194 -

Importance of Public Engagement).

Like Company X’s prototype, the Peru project on

the South American Continent (Fuentes and Mauri-

cio, 2020) achieved related results, providing a com-

prehensive solution for real-time water consumption

and billing measurement (ID 480 - Monthly Billing

and Lack of Awareness), and leak detection, address-

ing the questions of inefﬁcient water use and lack of

timely data.

However, the solution was consolidated in only

one bench prototype and was not applied in a real con-

text. These advantages need to be balanced with chal-

lenges related to standards, costs, privacy, and impact

on user behavior.

6 CONCLUSION

Water scarcity, combined with consumption control

and efﬁciency challenges, is a concern. When inves-

tigating the case of Company X and analyzing the se-

lected articles using the Open Design methodology,

signiﬁcant technical and social challenges associated

with the implementation of SWMs become evident.

The prototype designed by Company X left prob-

lems and doubts opened in 2016 trying to solve the

problem that remains current, despite adopting an in-

novative approach that uses IoT communication hard-

ware and software to monitor residential water con-

sumption.

By carrying out the bibliometric analysis it was

Design Analysis of Smart Water Meters: An Open Design Approach

441

possible to identify notable contributions from coun-

tries such as China, the United States and Brazil.

There is evidence of collective effort to face water

management challenges.

The open design methodology contributed by sys-

tematically identifying the perspectives of interested

parties, highlighting different concerns and needs in

different layers of society, bringing useful elements

to the discussion for the participatory and effective

construction of SWM.

The study contributes signiﬁcantly to understand-

ing and addressing critical issues related to wa-

ter management in smart cities, offering relevant

knowledge, innovative solutions and a collaborative

methodology to address these challenges effectively

and sustainably.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This work is ﬁnancially supported by the Coordina-

tion for the Improvement of Higher Education Per-

sonnel (CAPES) - Program of Academic Excellence

(PROEX).

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