Exploring the Willingness of Nigerian Community Policing

Stakeholders to Adopt Technology Through Survey

Otuu Obinna Ogbonnia

, Henry Anajemba Joseph

and Deepak Sahoo

Computer Science Department, Swansea University, U.K.

Department of Information Security Engineering Technology, Abu Dhabi Polytechnic, Abu Dhabi, U.A.E.

Computer Science Department, Swansea University, U.K.

Keywords: Awareness, Community Policing, Improvement, Safety, Nigeria.

Abstract: Community policing (CP) is widely acknowledged for its role in enhancing safety globally. However, in

Nigeria, the effectiveness of CP is diminishing despite advancements in CP technology. This decline

highlights a lack of understanding regarding citizens' awareness, concerns, and willingness to adopt

technological solutions for CP. Our study investigates Nigerians' awareness and concerns about CP initiatives

and their readiness to use technology to support these efforts. By surveying 1200 participants from all six

geopolitical zones online, we discovered a significant lack of awareness among citizens about key aspects of

CP, despite its potential to reduce crime, improve safety perceptions, and strengthen community-police

relationships. Nonetheless, a large majority (86%) expressed willingness to use technology for CP

engagements. This research marks the beginning of a Human Computer Interaction study aimed at integrating

technology into CP in Nigeria. The findings provide direction for future research phases and offer valuable

insights for policymakers to improve law enforcement practices and community engagement strategies in

Nigeria.

1 INTRODUCTION

Community policing stands as a cornerstone in

modern law enforcement strategies, yet its

effectiveness hinges greatly on the awareness,

concerns and willingness of citizens to participate in

the initiative (Cammett et al., 2024; Obi et al., 2024).

This initiative is not merely a law enforcement tactic

but a philosophy that emphasizes collaboration

between police officers and the citizens, aiming to

address underlying issues of crime and disorder. It is

widely regarded as an effective approach to

enhancing public safety and building trust between

the police and citizens (Ojobo et al., 2024). Despite

the global recognition of CP and existence of

technologies like surveillance and social platforms in

this context, CP practice decreases in the global

south, more especially in Nigeria (Onuoha et al.,

2021; O’Reilly, 2023), thereby resulting to low effect

https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9751-7035

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https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4421-7549

of CP within the global south region (Rukus et al.,

2018; Blair et al., 2021).

Meanwhile, citizens who are supposed to be

working with the police to achieve community

policing objectives dislike and avoid the police

(Quinn et al., 2023; Girardi, 2022; Drakulich et al.,

2023). Surprisingly, many of those who show dislike

for the police have not had personal encounter with

the police, but show dislike based on what they hear

from families or friends against the police or what

they inherited, in line with the hate culture principle

(Fisher, 2024). Reasons abound regarding why there

is dislike for the police, consequently low

participation in community policing. While some

studies point at police brutality as a major set back

(Quinn et al., 2023; Nalla & Gurinskaya, 2022), some

point at lack of awareness and dialogue (Dlamini,

2023; Enang et al., 2022), and others point at lack of

trust and accountability (Rukus et al., 2018; Blair et

al., 2021). Also, people love freedom; freedom to do

406

Ogbonnia, O. O., Joseph, H. A. and Sahoo, D.

Exploring the Willingness of Nigerian Community Policing Stakeholders to Adopt Technology Through Survey.

DOI: 10.5220/0013204300003928

Paper published under CC license (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0)

In Proceedings of the 20th International Conference on Evaluation of Novel Approaches to Software Engineering (ENASE 2025), pages 406-413

ISBN: 978-989-758-742-9; ISSN: 2184-4895

anything they want as humans (Theodoridis et al.,

2024), including the good and wrong, but the police

stand against the freedom to do the wrongs

(Bäckström & Schwarz, 2024). Of course, why would

one be over speeding in his own car and suddenly

reduce the speed because the police vehicle is sighted

in front? Why would one suddenly lower down the

hand or cut the phone call when he or she sees the

police while driving? These are very common actions

which prove that the presence of the police startles

wrongdoers and reduces their freedom to do wrongs

(Bruus, 2024), thereby igniting a mild discomfort

with the police presence. With the above in mind,

some pertinent questions regarding why citizens do

not participate in community policing have been

responded to, but without any effective solution at the

fore. Also, despite the numerous studies in

community policing, no research has examined the

awareness and concerns of Nigerians towards CP, and

their willingness to participate in the initiative should

the necessary digital technologies be provided. These

are significant gaps, which this study addresses.

2 RELATED STUDIES

Community policing (CP) has garnered significant

attention in both academic discourse and practical law

enforcement strategies as a promising approach to

enhancing public safety and building stronger police-

community relationships. Numerous studies have

highlighted the importance of citizen awareness and

engagement in the success of community policing

initiatives (Sani, 2022). Aston et al. (2023)

underscored the pivotal role of community

participation in crime prevention efforts, emphasizing

the need for collaborative partnerships between law

enforcement agencies and local residents. Similarly,

Holliday and Wagstaff (2022) conducted a

comprehensive review of community policing

programs and found that initiatives with higher levels

of citizen involvement tended to be more successful

in achieving their objectives. Researchers globally

have consistently demonstrated the positive impact of

community policing on crime reduction and safety

perceptions (Aston et al., 2023; Nalla & Gurinskaya,

2022). Studies by Sani (2022) and Weisburd et al.

(2022), neighborhoods with active community

policing initiatives experienced lower crime rates and

higher levels of perceived safety among residents

compared to areas without such programs. These

findings highlight the tangible benefits of community

policing in fostering safer communities and

improving public trust in law enforcement.

However, despite the potential advantages of

community policing, challenges persist in effectively

implementing and sustaining these initiatives. One

key issue is the lack of comprehensive citizen

awareness and understanding of community policing

practices (Aston et al., 2023; Boehme et al., 2020;

O'Reilly, 2023). Several studies have also pointed out

gaps in knowledge among community members

regarding the objectives, strategies, and roles within

community policing efforts (Fisher et al., 2022; 2022;

Zakimi et al., 2022). This limited awareness can

hinder citizen participation and cooperation,

ultimately undermining the effectiveness of

community policing programs. Cultural and

contextual factors may influence citizen perceptions

and attitudes toward community policing (Aston et

al., 2023; Boehme et al., 2020). In their study on

community policing in diverse communities, Fenn

and Bullock (2022). found that cultural norms and

historical experiences shape residents' trust in law

enforcement and willingness to engage in

collaborative policing efforts. Understanding these

nuances is essential for tailoring community policing

strategies to effectively address the unique needs and

preferences of diverse communities.

In the Nigerian context, several recent studies

have explored various aspects of community policing

and citizen engagement. Achoba and Irefin (2023)

conducted a study ?Community policing as a panacea

for mitigating armed banditry in central Nigeria to

assess citizen perceptions of community policing

practices and experience of intercommunity security

relations in Ankpa, Nigeria. Studies exist about

systematic research in relation to community

policing. A systematic review by Ike et al. (2022), on

Public perspectives of interventions aimed at building

confidence in the Nigerian police, revealed mixed

attitudes toward police-community partnerships.

Zhang et al. (2020) conducted an interview with 13

police and citizens to explore the experience of

police-citizen relationship. They recommended that

HCI researchers and designers of community policing

technologies should build devices that will enhance

digital trust between the police and citizens.

Overall, the literature underscores the importance

of citizen awareness and engagement in community

policing practices and highlights the need for tailored

approaches to address the unique challenges and

opportunities in the Nigerian context. By building

trust, fostering collaboration, and empowering local

communities, community policing has the potential to

significantly enhance public safety and strengthen

social cohesion in Nigeria.

Exploring the Willingness of Nigerian Community Policing Stakeholders to Adopt Technology Through Survey

407

3 METHODS

A descriptive research design approach (Svensson,

1984) was followed, after conducting an online

survey with 1200 citizens. The reason for the choice

of an online survey method was because of

geographical distance between the researcher who is

in the United Kingdom and respondents who are in

Nigeria. The participants were recruited through

Nigerian Facebook and Whatsapp groups. The 1200

participants were representatives of the 6 geopolitical

zones in Nigeria. Two hundred persons represented

each of the zones (South-East:Ebonyi, Enugu,

Anambra; South-South: Delta, Bayelsa, Cross River;

Southwest: Lagos, Ekiti, Osun; Northwest: Kano,

Kaduna, Katsina; Northeast:Gombe, Adamawa,

Yobe; North Central: Niger, Benue, Kwara). The

selected states were in no preference or order but were

selected because the participants from these states

accepted to participate in the studyby clicking on the

study link shared via different states Facebook and

Whatsapp groups. Meanwhile, these selection criteria

were important because the process gave no room for

undue influence on the respondents since they were

all total strangers to the researcher. The researcher

informed all participants about the research with a

little note accompanying the questionnaire link which

was designed using google form. Additionally, there

was a consent approval page that popped up as soon

as the link is clicked by any respondent, revealing the

details of the survey. The respondents all signed the

consent page before proceeding to the questions page.

1250 participants filled the form, but after performing

data cleaning, 50 records were removed. Therefore,

1200 participants returned the questionnaire, and the

responses were extracted through an excel file.

Reliability

Pilot Study was conducted on the questionnaire to

check its communicability by a native English

speaker. To measure if the items of the questionnaire

agree, we used Cronbach’s alpha coefficient, which

resulted into a value of 0.785, hence, showing an

acceptable reliability of the questionnaire. To validate

the final version of the questionnaire, it was sent to

two independent Human Computer Interaction

experts, who gave approval feedback. IBM SPSS was

used to code and analyse the extracted data for

targeted results as discussed in the next section.

Data Analysis

The binomial test of proportion using Z-

approximations on Likert scale data was adopted.

Binomial test of proportion is a non parametric test

statistic used to analyze questions involving

qualitative binomial mutually exclusive categorical

(Agreee/Disagree, Strong/Weak, Satisfied/Dissatis-

fied, etc.) responses (Gonçalves et al., 2023). A non-

parametric test is a distribution free test (Jimenez-

Mesa et al., 2023). To perform the binomial test of

proportion using Z- approximations on Likert scale

data, our data from Likert scales “Strongly Agree”,

“Agree”, “Neutral”, “Disagree”, and “Strongly

Disagree” were firstreduced to the nominal level by

combining all five categories into two categories of "

Agree " and "Disagree" or “Satisfied” and

“Dissatisfied”. This is a case of one sample binomial

test (Jimenez-Mesa et al., 2023; Orsini et al.,

2023).According to Mogey (2014), data from Likert

scales can be reduced to the nominal level by

combining all agree and disagree responses into two

mutually exclusive categories of "Agree" and

"Disagree". The Binomial tests of proportion are

common statistical procedures used after this

transformation (Diamantopoulos et al., 2023;

Sullivan & Artino, 2013). This is necessary to give

the study empirical results and conclusions. Likert

scores are then summarized using the mode for easy

interpretations (Aguboshim & Otuu, 2022; Gonçalves

et al., 2023; Mogey, 2014; Sullivan & Artino, 2013).

The copyright form is located on the authors’

reserved area.

4 RESULTS

This section presents the results of the study in

partitions of satisfaction on community policing

practices, awareness, importance, agreement with

some practices, and willingness to use technology to

support community policing.

4.1 Community Satisfaction on

Community Policing Practices in

Nigeria

This analysis aimed to investigate whether the rating

of current community policing practices in Nigeria

significantly deviates from a neutral standpoint,

suggesting widespread dissatisfaction. Two

hypotheses were posited: the null hypothesis (H0)

stating that the proportion of dissatisfaction with

current community policing practices is not

significantly different from the expected proportion

of 0.50, and the alternative hypothesis (H1)

suggesting significant deviation from this proportion.

The Binomial Test of proportion using Z-

ENASE 2025 - 20th International Conference on Evaluation of Novel Approaches to Software Engineering

408

approximations was adopted to examined the

observed proportions of dissatisfaction among 1200

respondents against a test proportion of 0.50.

Figure 1: Awareness pie chart.

Results revealed that 88% expressed

dissatisfaction, significantly deviating from the

expected proportion (p=0.88, P=0.50, p<0.01),

indicating substantial discontentment with current

community policing practices in Nigeria. These

findings highlight the pressing need to address these

concerns and potentially reevaluate and improve

existing community policing strategies. Additionally,

the modal value, which indicates the most commonly

chosen response for the factor “How would you

conclusively rate community policing practice in

Nigeria at present”?, on the Likert scale, was

computed. This modal value, being 1, indicates the

most frequent response, corresponds to "Very

dissatisfied," with a total count of 555 respondents,

indicating strong dissatisfaction.

1. Community Awareness on Community Policing

Practices in Nigeria

The research question aimed to determine the levels

of awareness among respondents concerning

different facets of community policing in Nigeria and

whether significant disparities existed in these

awareness levels. Two hypotheses were formulated:

the null hypothesis (H0) suggested that the proportion

of respondents' awareness regarding various facets of

community policing would not significantly differ

from the expected proportion of 0.50, while the

alternative hypothesis (H1) proposed otherwise.

Utilizing the Binomial Test of Proportion with Z-

approximations, the study findings revealed

substantial disparities in awareness levels.

The study reveals significant disparities in

awareness levels concerning different facets of

community policing in Nigeria. Findings from the

Binomial Test of Proportion with Z-approximations

indicate a substantial lack of awareness among

respondents regarding various aspects of community

policing. Specifically, there is statistically significant

unawareness regarding collaboration between

communities and police to combat crime (p=0.61,

P=0.50, p<0.01), police communication with

communities about objectives and strategies (p=0.62,

P=0.50, p<0.01), citizens secretly aiding the police in

crime prevention (p=0.54, P=0.50, p<0.01), and

police patrolling neighborhoods on foot to build

relationships (p=0.81, P=0.50, p<0.01). Respondents

also demonstrated a lack of awareness regarding

police making themselves easily accessible through

substations closer to people (p=0.62, P=0.50,

p<0.01), police engagement initiatives like mentoring

and youth programs (p=0.86, P=0.50, p<0.01), and

citizens' willingness to participate in community

policing efforts or involvement (p=0.62, P=0.50,

p<0.01.

On the other hand , respondents demonstrated

significant awareness regarding police disrespect the

orders of the leadership of communities while

performing their duties (72% awareness, p=0.72,

P=0.50, p<0.01), lack of trust between police and

communities (83% awareness, p=0.83, P=0.50,

p<0.01), Police finding it difficult to arrest offenders

because the police don’t work with communities

(57% awareness, p=0.57, P=0.50, p<0.01), and Police

reluctant to share information with communities

(57% awareness, p=0.57, P=0.50, p<0.01), and police

actions conflicting with community leadership,

indicating a recognized issue in police-community

relations (p=0.64, P=0.50, p<0.01). Awareness of

police adherence to cultural values was evenly

divided (p=0.52, P=0.50, p>0.05), suggesting no

statistically significant awareness discrepancy on this

aspect. Overall, the findings underscore significant

gaps in awareness regarding various aspects of

community policing practices in Nigeria, highlighting

the need for enhanced community engagement and

awareness campaigns to improve understanding and

collaboration between police and communities.

4.2 Community’s Importance Rating

on Community Policing Practices in

Nigeria

The research question for community’s importance

rating on community policing practices in Nigeria

aimed to discern the perceived levels of importance

among respondents regarding various factors related

to community policing practice in Nigeria, along with

identifying significant trends favoring the perception

of unimportance. Two hypotheses were formulated:

the null hypothesis (H0) posited that the proportion of

respondents perceiving these factors as unimportant

would not significantly differ from the expected

proportion of 0.50, while the alternative hypothesis

(H1) suggested otherwise. Utilizing the Binomial

Test of Proportion with Z-approximations, the study

Exploring the Willingness of Nigerian Community Policing Stakeholders to Adopt Technology Through Survey

409

uncovered a significant trend favoring the perception

of unimportance among respondents regarding

various facets of community policing practice in

Nigeria.The study reveals a significant trend favoring

the perception of unimportance among respondents

regarding various factors related to community

policing practice in Nigeria. Findings from a binomial

test of proportions using Z-approximations indicate

that across all factors, there is a consensus that these

aspects are unimportant. Findings highlighted a

consensus that these aspects were deemed

unimportant, including prompt police response to

emergencies (p=0.90, P=0.50, p<0.01)., installing

surveillance systems to monitor activities (p=0.91,

P=0.50, p<0.01), using social media platforms to

support policing activities (p=0.93, P=0.50, p<0.01),

partnerships between the community and the police

(p=0.90, P=0.50, p<0.01), police working together to

fight crime (p=0.90, P=0.50, p<0.01), police

communication with communities about their

objectives and strategies (p=0.75, P=0.50, p<0.01),

and citizens secretly working with the police to fight

crime (p=0.90, P=0.50, p<0.01). Similarly, there was

a significant perception that police patrolling the

neighborhood on foot police patrolling the

neighborhood on foot was unimportant( (p=0.79,

P=0.50, p<0.01) , and making themselves easily

accessible through substations (p=0.90, P=0.50,

p<0.01) is also considered unimportant. Conversely,

there is a significant perception that police supporting

communities with mentoring and youth programs is

unimportant (p=0.84, P=0.50, p<0.01). These

findings suggest a prevalent belief among

respondents that various aspects of community

policing practices in Nigeria are not of significant

importance, indicating potential areas for

improvement and policy focus.

4.3 Agreement with Some Community

Policing Practice in Nigeria

The question investigated here is the perceptions

among respondents regarding the effectiveness of

community policing in various aspects and whether

there are significant trends favoring disagreement

with its effectiveness. Two hypotheses were

formulated: the null hypothesis (H0) suggested that

the proportion of respondents disagreeing with the

effectiveness of community policing in various

aspects would not significantly differ from the

expected proportion of 0.50, while the alternative

hypothesis (H1) proposed otherwise. To test these

hypotheses, the study utilized the Binomial Test of

Proportion with Z-approximations.

The results revealed a significant trend favoring

disagreement with the effectiveness of community

policing across all factors examined. Notably, a

prevalent belief emerged among respondents that

community policing could not effectively improve

police-community relationships (p=0.86, P=0.50,

p<0.01), increase community capacity to address

issues (p=0.89, P=0.50, p<0.01), enhance safety

perceptions (p=0.96, P=0.50, p<0.01), or reduce

crime rates (p=0.96, P=0.50, p<0.01). The findings

indicated widespread skepticism regarding the

efficacy of community policing in achieving its

intended objectives, suggesting potential areas for

improvement or the need to reassess community

policing strategies to better meet community

expectations and needs.

4.4 Willingness to Use Technology to

Support Community Policing

Practices in Nigeria

This analysis aimed to investigate if Nigerians are

willing to support community policing if the enabling

technologies are provided. Two hypotheses were

posited:

Null hypothesis (H0): There is no significant

difference in willingness to support Community

Policing (CP) among Nigerians when enabling

technologies are provided.

Alternative hypothesis (H1): There is a significant

difference in willingness to support Community

Policing (CP) among Nigerians when enabling

technologies are provided.

The Binomial Test of proportion using Z-

approximations was adopted to look at the observed

proportions of willingness among 1200 respondents

against a test proportion of 0.50.

Figure 2: Willingness to use Technology.

Results revealed that 86% expressed willingness to

use technology to support community policing,

significantly deviating from the expected proportion

of 0.50 (p=0.86, P=0.50, p<0.01), indicating

substantial willingness to support the strategy if

technologies can be made available in this context.

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5 DISCUSSION

Several significant findings regarding awareness,

importance, agreement with various aspects of

community policing practices and willingness of

citizens to use technology for CP in Nigeria were

revealed. For instance, there was substantial lack of

awareness regarding collaboration between

communities and police, police communication with

communities about objectives and strategies, citizen

involvement in crime prevention, and other key

aspects. Also a significant trend favoring the

perception of low importance of community policing

practice in Nigeria was observed. Across all factors

examined, there was a consensus that police response

to emergencies, partnerships between the community

and police, among others aspects were unimportant.

The results also showed widespread disagreement

with the effectiveness of community policing across

all factors examined, highlighting major concerns.

Respondents generally expressed skepticism

regarding the ability of community policing to

improve police-community relationships, increase

community capacity to address issues, enhance safety

perceptions, or reduce crime rates. Furthermore,

findings revealed high willingness of Nigerians to

support community policing if advanced digital

technologies are provided for use.

Meanwhile, the findings of the study have several

important implications for the understanding and

implementation of community policing in Nigeria as

presented below.

5.1 Lack of Awareness

The finding that Nigerian citizens are not aware of

some community policing practices suggests a

significant gap in public education and outreach. This

lack of awareness may hinder the effectiveness of

existing or future community policing initiatives. It

underscores the need for a comprehensive public

awareness campaign to inform citizens about the role,

purpose, and benefits of community policing, which

is crucial for its success.

5.2 Perceived Irrelevance of

Community Policing

The perception among citizens that community

policing may not enhance police-citizen relationships

reflects a deeper issue of trust and skepticism towards

law enforcement in Nigeria. This could be linked to

historical challenges with police misconduct or

inefficiencies. Therefore, community policing

strategies need to be tailored to address this trust

deficit by showing how such practices can foster

collaboration, transparency, and accountability

between the police and communities.

5.3 Conditional Willingness to

Participate

The willingness of citizens to participate in

community policing, contingent on the provision of

advanced digital technologies, highlights an

opportunity to modernize and digitize policing efforts

in Nigeria. It implies that the integration of

technology such as mobile applications, surveillance

systems, and real-time communication platforms

could increase citizen engagement. This presents an

opportunity for law enforcement agencies to leverage

technology to improve the efficiency, transparency,

and responsiveness of community policing efforts.

5.4 Policy and Strategy Adjustment

These findings indicate that policymakers and law

enforcement agencies need to rethink their approach

to community policing. Investments in digital

infrastructure, combined with efforts to educate

citizens about the importance of their involvement,

could transform community policing into a more

effective tool for crime prevention and community

engagement. This would require not only financial

investment but also strategic planning to integrate

technology into policing in ways that resonate with

local communities.

5.5 Building Trust Through

Modernization

Finally, the study implies that the success of

community policing in Nigeria may depend on its

modernization. Citizens’ openness to digital solutions

suggests that trust in the police could be improved if

the policing system demonstrates adaptability to

contemporary technological advancements. This

could help bridge the current gap between citizens

and the police, fostering a more collaborative and

productive relationship.

6 LIMITATIONS

The survey conducted on Nigerian citizens'

awareness and concerns regarding community

policing while insightful, has certain limitations that

Exploring the Willingness of Nigerian Community Policing Stakeholders to Adopt Technology Through Survey

411

must be acknowledged. Firstly, the online survey

method might have introduced sampling bias,

potentially skewing the results by excluding segments

of the population with limited internet access or

digital literacy. Secondly, despite efforts to include

participants from all six geopolitical zones, the

sample may not fully represent Nigeria's diverse

socio-cultural and demographic landscape, limiting

the generalizability of the findings. Thirdly,

participants' responses could have been influenced by

social desirability bias or other factors, leading to

potential overestimation or underestimation of certain

attitudes or perceptions. Also, the survey questions

and response options may not have fully captured the

nuanced perspectives or depth of understanding

regarding community policing among participants,

thereby limiting the comprehensiveness of the

findings.

7 CONCLUSION

The study emphasizes the role of technological

innovations in community policing success in Nigeria

while highlighting disparities in awareness,

willingness, and perception. Despite recognizing

benefits like crime reduction and improved police-

community relationships, respondents showed

limited awareness and skepticism. Policymakers

should enhance engagement and awareness through

diverse communication strategies and training for

both law enforcement and citizens. Further research

should explore culturally sensitive technological

approaches to improve security and trust.

Longitudinal studies tracking changes in perceptions

and effectiveness can provide valuable insights.

Assessing technological needs will aid in designing

relevant tools for community policing. Comparative

studies between Nigeria and other nations facing

similar challenges can help refine strategies.

Addressing these concerns will enhance community

policing effectiveness, ensuring safer environments

for all citizens.

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